Retrocyclins: antiviral and antimicrobial peptides

ABSTRACT

Retrocyclin peptides are small antimicrobial agents with potent activity against bacteria and viruses. The peptides are nonhemolytic, and exhibit minimal in vitro cytotoxicity. A pharmaceutical composition comprising retrocyclin as an active agent is administered therapeutically to a patient suffering from a bacterial and/or viral infection, or to an individual facing exposure to a bacterial and/or viral infection, especially one caused by the HIV-1 retrovirus or other sexually-transmitted pathogens.

This invention was made with Government support under contract A122839 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain fights in this invention.

BACKGROUND

Natural polycationic antimicrobial peptides have been found in many different species of animals and insects and shown to have broad antimicrobial activity. In mammals, these antimicrobial peptides are represented by two families, the defensins and the cathelicidins. Nearly all of these peptides have membrane affinity, and can permeate and permeabilize bacterial membranes, resulting in injury, lysis, and/or death to the microbes. In particular, the human peptides known as defensins are produced by mammalian and avian leukocytes (e.g. neutrophils, some macrophages) and epithelial cells.

Three defensin subfamilies exist in vertebrates: alpha-defensins, beta-defensins, and circular (theta) minidefensins. All derive from an ancestral gene that existed before reptiles and birds diverged, contain six cysteines, and have largely beta-sheet structures that are stabilized by three intramolecular disulfide bonds. RTD-1, a theta minidefensin, was recently detected in bone marrow from the rhesus monkey, Macacca mulatta. It had 18 residues and was circular, having been formed by the fusion of two truncated alpha-defensin precursors (“demidefensins”) each of which contributed 3 cysteines to the mature peptide. It is not yet known if the cellular machinery responsible for processing these precursors remains operational in human leukocytes.

Alpha-defensins are largely beta sheet peptides that contain 29-35 amino acid residues, including 6 cysteines that form three intramolecular disulfide bonds. Because of the nature of the cysteine pairings, the molecules are effectively macrocyclic. Four of these α-defensins, HNP 14, occur primarily in human neutrophils. HD-5 & 6 are found in Paneth cells, specialized cells of the small intestine's crypts. Human α-defensin genes contain three exons and two introns and are clustered on chromosome 8p23. They encode preprodefensins that contain ˜100 residues which include a signal peptide, a polyanionic propiece and the C-terminal defensin domain. Mature defensins are processed by sequential proteolysis.

Beta defensins are generally larger than α-defensins (3540 residues) and may also be more ancient, since they occur in birds as well as mammals. Beta defensins are expressed in many different types of epithelial cells, and in some glands. In some cases, expression is constitutive; in others, it is inducible. Several β-defensin genes are located on 8 p23, adjacent to the α-defensin genes-consistent with their common evolutionary ancestry. The disulfide pairing motif of beta defensins differs from that of α-defensins, however α and β-defensins have generally similar shapes.

The three-dimensional structure of many defensins comprises a complexly folded amphiphilic beta-sheet, with the polar face formed by its arginines and by the N- and C-terminal residues playing an important role in defining microbicidal potency and the antimicrobial spectrum. The antimicrobial effects of defensins are derived from their ability to permeabilize cell membranes and interact with viral envelopes, thereby exposing contents of the microorganism to the environment or abrogating viral infectivity. (See Gudmundsson et al. (1999) J Immunol Methods 232(1-2):45-54.) Antimicrobial peptides are reviewed by Hancock and Lehrer (1998) Trends in Biotechnology 16:82.

In general, the antiviral activities of antimicrobial peptides have not been extensively investigated. Although studies have reported that antimicrobial peptides, such as human neutrophil-derived defensins (α-defensins), are directly virucidal against herpes simplex virus (HSV), and adenovirus strains, only a few reports deal with anti-HIV-1 activity. T22 and T140, analogs of polyphemusins (peptides from horseshoe crabs), are active in inhibiting HIV-1 replication through binding to the chemokine receptor CXCR4. However, these peptides only inhibit the T cell-tropic (T-tropic; X4) strains that utilize CXCR4 as a coreceptor for entry and they are ineffective against strains that utilize CCR5 for entry (macrophage (M)-tropic “R5” viruses). Since sexual transmission is largely attributed to R5 infection, the potential of T22 and T140 as topical vaginal or rectal microbicides is limited.

One study indicated that protegrins (porcine-derived peptides) can inactivate HIV-1 virions. Another study showed that indolicidin, a 13 amino acid peptide isolated from bovine neutrophils, was reproducibly virucidal against HIV-1 only at very high concentrations (333 μg/ml) of peptide. Certain structural and functional similarities exist between the loop motifs of α-defensins and peptides derived from HIV-1 gp41 that may be required for viral fusion and infectivity.

Vaginal and rectal subepithelial stromal tissues are densely populated with dendritic cells (DC), macrophages and T-cells that express both CD4 and the HIV-1 coreceptors, CXCR4 and CCR5. Mechanisms whereby H IV-1 journeys across the mucosal epithelia are not clear, but may directly involve the epithelial cells. Once the virus reaches the lamina propria, it can either directly infect macrophages or T-cells or adhere to or infect DC whose traffic to the regional lymph nodes conveys them into sites of vigorous viral replication. A recent report suggests that binding of HIV-1 to DC is mediated by the C-type lectin DC-SIGN, independent of CD4 or chemokine receptors. Thus, mucosal factors which modulate steps in this process could affect the probability of transmission of HIV-1 infection.

There is a clinical need for novel antiviral and antimicrobial agents that have low toxicity against mammalian cells. The present invention addresses this need.

Relevant Literature

Defensins are reviewed by Lehrer et al. (1992) Ann. Rev. Immunol. 11:105-128. Other endogenous antimicrobials are reviewed in Schonwetter et al. (1995) Science 267:1645-1648; Schroder (1999) Cell Mol Life Sci. 56:32-46 (1999); and Harwig et al. (1994) FEBS Lett 342:281-285.

Specific defensins are described in Tang et al. (1999) Science 286:498-502; Zimmermann et al. (1995) Biochemistry 34:13663-13671; Liu et al. (1997) Genomics 43:316-320; and Palfree & Shen (1994) GenBank U10267; Polley et al. GenBank AF238378 disclose the sequence of Homo sapiens chromosome 8p23 clone SCb-561b17.

Retrovirus infection and antiretroviral therapy are discussed in Wilson et al. (1995) J. Infect Dis. 172:88-96; Wong et al. Science 278:1291-1295; and Yang et al. (1999) J. Virol. 73, 4582-4589.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Methods and compositions are provided for the use of retrocyclin peptides. Retrocyclin peptides are small antimicrobial agents with potent activity against viruses, e.g. enveloped viruses such as retroviruses; and bacteria. These circular peptides are nonhemolytic and generally exhibit little or no in vitro cytotoxicity. Retrocyclins are equally effective against growing and stationary phase bacteria, and they retain activity against some bacteria in physiological, and high salt concentrations. Studies indicate that retrocyclins are also capable of conferring immunity to human CD4⁺ cells against infection by HIV-1 in vitro. In addition, other circular mini-defensins also find use as anti-viral agents, particularly against human retroviruses.

A pharmaceutical composition comprising retrocyclin or other circular mini-defensins as an active agent is administered to a patient suffering from a viral infection. Alternatively, a pharmaceutical composition comprising retrocyclin or other circular mini-defensins or is administered as a protective agent to a normal individual facing potential exposure to HIV or other viruses or to pathogenic microbes. Retrocyclin is also effective at killing a variety of microbial organisms, in vivo and in vitro. Retrocyclin may be administered alone, or in combination with other bacteriocidal agents, e.g. antibiotics and/or other antiviral agents, and antiviral agents as a cocktail of effective peptides, etc. Retrocyclin-mediated killing is also useful for modeling and screening novel antibiotics.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1. Circular minidefensins reduce HIV-1 infection of H9 cells. HIV-I strain IIIB (MOI=10⁻²) was incubated with 2.5×10⁵ H9 cells in the presence or absence of 20 μg/ml RTD-1, RTD-2 or RTD-3. p24 antigen release was monitored by ELISA on days 3, 6, and 9. Assay sensitivity=10 pg/ml.

FIG. 2. Sequence comparison of human and rhesus demidefensins. The translated sequences of rhesus demidefensin-1 mRNA (SEQ ID NO:17) and human retrocyclin (ESQ ID NO:5-97) mRNA are shown. Solid circles (●) indicate a stop codon in the corresponding cDNA. Vertical bars connect identical residues, and + signs connect similar residues. Residues represented in mature retrocyclin and RTD-molecules are boxed. The demidefensin-1 sequence (GenBank, AF184156) was derived from the monkey mRNA (not shown).

FIG. 3A-D. Structural characterization of retrocyclin. (A) CD spectrum demonstrating the similarity in structure between retrocyclin and RTD-1, both at 0.5 mg/ml in a 1:1 mixture of trifluoroethanol in phosphate buffered saline at pH 7.4. (B) shows a hypothetical model of retrocyclin made by templating its sequence on the backbone of a similar peptide from porcine neutrophils, Protegrin-1 (PDB accession code: 1 PG1). (D) (linked nonamers of SEQ ID NO:19) is a cartoon version of (B), wherein arginines are black, cysteines are grey and the other residues are identified by single letter code. (C) is a similar cartoon of rhesus RTD-1, (linked nonamers of SEQ ID NO:36 and 27), indicating the similarity in structure with retrocyclin.

FIG. 4. Effect of salt on antibacterial activity of circular minidefensins. Human retrocyclin and monkey RTD-1 were tested against our standard lab stains: E. coli ML-35p, P. aeruginosa MR 3007, L. monocytogenes EGD, and S. aureus 930918. The bars show MIC values±SEM values that resulted from 3-6 radial diffusion assays per organism and assay condition.

FIG. 5A-C. Anti-HIV-1 activity of retrocyclin. Two strains of HIV-1 and two types of human target cells were used. The IIIB strain is T-cell tropic (X4) and utilizes the CXCR4 co-receptor for entry; the JR-CSF strain is M-tropic (R5) and uses CCR5 for entry. PBMC signifies CD4⁺-selected peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Results indicate p24 antigen concentration in pg/ml, as determined by quantitative ELISA assay at Day 9 timepoint. (A) Two concentrations of retrocyclin (2 μg/ml, 20 μg/ml), 20 μg/ml of the Rhesus circular defensin “RTD-1”, and 20 μg/ml of a horseshoe crab-derived peptide “T140”, reported to only prevent X4 infections, were tested in antiviral assays of against strain IIIB in H9 cells (n=2-6 per peptide; error bars indicate SEM). (B) To confirm our results with primary human cells, similar assays were performed utilizing IIIB virus and CD4⁺ PBMC or (C) JR-CSF virus and CD4⁺ PBMC. Peptides were not cytotoxic at indicated concentrations, measured by trypan blue exclusion. Average of duplicate experiments are reported for studies with PBMCs. Assay sensitivity=10 pg/ml.

FIG. 6. Retrocyclin can inhibit HIV-1 spread when administered up to 24 hrs post-infection. Primary CD4⁺ PBMC were incubated with HIV-IIIB for 3 hours in the absence (“control”, “t0”, “t3”, and “t24”) or presence (“t0 only”) of 20 μg/ml retrocyclin. Cells were transferred to fresh R10-50 media that was either supplemented immediately with 20 μg/ml retrocyclin (“t0”), or 3 or 24 hrs after transfer (“t3” and “t24”, respectively). “Control” and “tφ only” were not supplemented after transfer. p24 antigen was measured by ELISA as previously described.

FIG. 7. Mature retrocyclin, but not premature forms, inhibit HIV-1 replication. H9 cells were incubated with HIV-IIIB (MOI=10⁻²) for 3 hours in the absence or presence of 20 μg/ml retrocyclin in three flavors: linear and reduced; linear and oxidized disulfide bonds; and the mature form (cyclic and oxidized). Assay sensitivity is 10 pg/ml.

FIG. 8. Cytotoxicity of antimicrobial peptides against H9 cells. Retrocyclin, RTD-1 and PG-1 (a porcine-derived peptide with anti-HIV-1 activity) were tested for cytotoxicity using an MTT assay for cell proliferation. Note that the EC₅₀ of Retrocyclin and RTD-1 were >100 μg/ml, concentrations well above their antiviral concentration.

FIGS. 9A and 9B are graphs depicting the activity of retrocyclin congeners against HIV-1 strains.

FIG. 10A is a schematics depicting the structure of retrocyclin (linked nonamers of SEQ ID NO:19): Retrocyclin 2 (linked nonamers of SEQ ID NO:19 and SEQ ID NO:74). Retrocyclin 3 (linked nonamers of SEQ ID NO:74) and RTD-1 (linked nonamers of SEQ ID NO:36 and SEQ ID NO:45). FIG. 10B is a schematic depicting the structure of a retrocyclin (linked nonamers of SEQ ID NO:52).

FIG. 11A-C compares the antiretroviral activity of retrocyclin and RC-101(20 μg/ml), by showing the p24 titers from day 9 CD4⁺ PBMC (peripheral blood mononuclear cells) infected with HIV-1 strains IIIB or JR-CSF at the indicated MOI. RC-101 and retrocyclin were similarly effective in inhibiting HIV-1 replication at low MOI (A) and higher MOI (B).

FIG. 12. Adding retrocyclin directly with HIV-IIIB does not reduce infection of H9 cells. Retrocyclin (2-200 μg/ml) was incubated with HIV-IIIB (MOI=10⁻²) diluted in R10 media prior to infecting H9 cells. p24 antigen release was measured by ELISA. Limit of detection=10 pg/ml.

FIG. 13. Retrocyclin and RC-101 inhibited the formation of HIV proviral DNA. Retrocyclin and RC-101 inhibited the formation of DNA from both early events (total HIV DNA) and later events (full-length HIV DNA) of reverse transcription. Data are an average of 2 experiments, except for RC-101 (1 experiment). “HI virus” is a heat-inactivated virus control for background levels of viral DNA.

FIG. 14. Inactivation of HSV-1 and HSV-2 by retrocyclin and RC-101. Retrocyclin (left panel) and RC-101 (right panel) at the indicated concentrations were incubated with herpes simplex virus, type 1 (HSV-1) or HSV-2 for 2 hrs and then added to ME-180 cell monolayers. Cells were incubated at 37° C. for 72 hrs, and cytotoxicity was measured with an MTT kit.

FIG. 15A-15B depicts sequences of human, ape and monkey retrocyclins.

FIG. 16. Activity against subtype B strains. Protective activity of the E defensins was tested at four peptide concentrations: 1.25, 2.5, 5.0 and 10.0 μg/ml. The bars show mean % protection±S.E.M., n=7. Retrol is retrocyclin-1 (RC-100). Characteristics of the isolates are shown in Table 6.

FIG. 17. Activity against subtype A and C isolates. Protective activity of the 0 defensins was tested at four peptide concentrations: 1.25, 2.5, 5.0 and 10.0 μg/ml. The bars show mean % protection±S.E.M., n=4 for each subtype.

FIG. 18. Activity against subtype D and CRF01_AE isolates. Protective activity of the θ defensins was tested at four peptide concentrations: 1.25, 2.5, 5.0 and 10.0 μg/ml. The bars show mean % protection±S.E.M., n=3 for each subtype.

FIG. 19. Activity against three recombinant subtypes. Protective activity of the E defensins was tested at four peptide concentrations: 1.25, 2.5, 5.0 and 10.0 μg/ml. The subtypes appear beneath each set of bars. Their coreceptor specificity is shown above the second set of bars.

FIG. 20. Binding to gp120. These binding isotherms were measured by surface plasmon resonance, using a biosensor chip that contained immobilized, recombinant gp120. Various concentrations of RC-100 and RC-101 (0.05 to 0.5 μg/ml) flowed over the biosensor chip between minutes 1 to 4, to allow the “on rates” to be measured. At 4 minutes, the peptide-containing solutions were replaced by peptide-free medium, to ascertain the “off-rates.”

FIG. 21A-21B. Activity of theta-defensins against HIV-1 BAL; and HIV-1 IIIB.

FIG. 22 shows the effect of various retrocyclins on hemagglutination.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS

Novel compositions and methods are provided for the use of retrocyclins and retrocyclin analogs as therapeutic and/or prophylactic agents. The peptides are effective at killing a variety of microbial organisms by direct microbicidal activity, and protect against viral infection by a virus by preventing viral uptake and/or blocking an early step in viral replication. Retrocyclin(s) are administered alone or in combination with other active agents to a patient suffering from an infection in a dose and for a period of time sufficient to reduce the patient population of pathogenic microbes or viruses. Alternatively, a pharmaceutical composition comprising retrocyclin or other circular mini-defensins or is administered as a protective agent to a normal individual facing potential exposure to HIV viruses or pathogenic microbes. In addition, other circular mini-defensins, including RTD-1, RTD-2 and RTD-3 and variants of retrocyclin find use as anti-viral agents.

Specific treatments of interest include, without limitation: using retrocyclin (e.g., RC-101) or a retrocyclin analog to prevent or treat infection, for example by an enveloped virus, including enveloped retroviruses, more specifically by HIV-1, HIV-2 and related retroviruses that cause Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS); aerosol administration to the lungs of patients with cystic fibrosis to combat infection or forestall the emergence of resistance to other inhaled antibiotics; instillation into the urinary bladder of patients with indwelling catheters to prevent infection; application to the skin of patients with serious burns; opthalmic instillation, directly or in ophthalmic solutions, to treat or prevent infection; intravaginal application to treat bacterial vaginosis and/or prevent sexually transmitted disease such as HIV infection. The retrocyclins also may find use in the treatment of plant-pathogenic pseudomonads, in agricultural applications designed to prevent disease in and spoilage of food crops. The retrocyclins may be administered alone or in conjunction with other antiviral therapy.

The peptide form of retrocyclins provides a basis for further therapeutic development, by modification of the polypeptide structure to yield modified forms having altered biological and chemical properties. The native or modified forms are formulated in a physiologically acceptable carrier for therapeutic uses, or are otherwise used as an antimicrobial agent.

Retrocyclin Compositions

For use in the subject methods, a naturally occurring or synthetic retrocyclin may be used. As used herein, retrocyclins are cyclic polypeptides comprising the amino acid sequence:

-   X₁ X₂ X₃ X₄ X₅ X₆ X₇ X₈ X₉ X₁₀ X₁₁ X₁₂ X₁₃ X₁₄ X₁₅ X₁₆ X₁₇ X₁₈

wherein X1 and X18 are linked through a peptide bond,

disulfide crosslinks are formed between at least one of: X₃ and X₁₆; X₅ and X₁₄, and X₇ and X₁₂, usually between at least two of such pairs, and preferably between the three pairs of amino acids, with the proviso that when such a crosslink is present, the crosslinked amino acids are both cysteines;

at least about three of amino acids X₁ to X₁₈ are arginine or lysine, and the number of arginine or lysine residues may be four or more, five or more, or six or more. Preferred residues for arginine or lysine are X₄, X₉, X₈, X₁₃, and X₁₈;

X₂, X₆, X₁₁, X₁₅ are preferably aliphatic amino acids, e.g. isoleucine, leucine, valine, phenylalanine, and alanine;

X₁, X₈, X₁₀ and X₁₇ are preferably glycine or alanine, usually glycine.

Retrocyclins are octadecapeptides that contain two linked nonapeptides that may be identical or different. A consensus nonapeptide has the sequence shown below, where the bolded and underlined residues are invariant among the primate sequences identified herein. Substitutions found in the nonapeptide regions of other circular minidefensin precursors are shown below the consensus nonapeptide.

Residue No 1 3 5 7 9 Consensus nonapeptide RC I C GRGI C (SEQ ID NO: 19) Variant   L RLRV (SEQ ID NO: 126) Variant     T  F (SEQ ID NO: 36) Variant     V (SEQ ID NO: 23) Variant       R (SEQ ID NO: 74) From the consensus peptide and these variants, one can generate unique nonapeptide sequences (herein termed n1, n2 . . . etc.). Thus, n1 could be linked to itself or any of the other nonapeptides (n1:n1, n1:n2, n1:n3 . . . etc.), to generate unique octadecapeptides. To continue the process, n2 could be linked to itself or to any other nonapeptide except n1, to generate additional unique octadecapeptides, and so forth.

Two naturally occurring human nonapeptide sequences are RCICGRGIC; (SEQ ID NO:19); and RCICGRRIC. (SEQ ID NO:74). The set of nonapeptides derived from these sequences and variants (which are also provided in the sequence listing as SEQ ID NO:19-64; and 74-119) is as follows:

SEQ ID NO: SEQ ID NO: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 mod'n* NP# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 modification* 19 R C I C G R G I C — 42 R C I C G L G F C L6, F8 20 R C L C G R G I C L3 43 R C I C G L G V C L6, V8 21 R C I C R R G I C R5 44 R C L C R L G I C L3, R5, L6 22 R C I C T R G I C T5 45 R C L C R R G V C L3, R5, V8 23 R C I C V R G I C V5 46 R C L C R R G F C L3, R5, F8 24 R C I C G L G I C L6 47 R C L C T L G I C L3, T5, L6 25 R C I C G R G V C V8 48 R C L C G R G V C L3, T5, V8 26 R C I C G R G F C F8 49 R C L C T R G F C L3, T5, F8 27 R C L C R R G V C L3, R5 50 R C L C V L G I C L3, V5, L6 28 R C L C T R G I C L3, T5 51 R C L C V R G V C L3, V5, V8 29 R C L C V R G I C L3, V5 52 R C I C G R G I C L3, V5, F8 30 R C L C G L G V C L3, L6 53 R C I C R L G V C R5, L6, V8 31 R C L C G R G V C L3, V8 54 R C I C R L G F C R5, L6, F8 32 R C L C G R G F C L3, F8 55 R C I C T L G V C T5, L6, V8 33 R C I C R R G V C R5, V8 56 R C I C T L G F C T5, L6, F8 34 R C I C R R G F C R5, F8 57 R C I C V L G V C V5, L6, V8 35 R C I C T R G V C T5, V8 58 R C I C V L G F C V5, L6, F8 36 R C I C T R G F C T5, F8 59 R C L C G L G V C L3, R5, L6, V8 37 R C I C T L G I C T5, L6 60 R C L C G L G I C L3, R5, L6, F8 38 R C I C V L G F C V5, L6 61 R C L C T L G V C L3, T5, L6, V8 39 R C I C R L G I C R5, L6 62 R C L C T L G I C L3, T5, L6, F8 40 R C I C V R G V C V5, V8 63 R C L C V L G V C L3, V5, L6, V8 41 R C I C G R G F C V5, F8 64 R C L C V L G I C L3, V5, L6, F8 74 R C I C G R R I C — 97 R C I C G L R F C L6, F8 75 R C L C G R R I C L3 98 R C I C G L R V C L6, V8 76 R C I C R R R I C R5 99 R C L C R L R I C L3, R5, L6 77 R C I C T R R I C T5 100 R C L C R R R V C L3, R5, V8 78 R C I C V R R I C V5 101 R C L C R R R F C L3, R5, F8 79 R C I C G L R I C L6 102 R C L C T L R I C L3, T5, L6 80 R C I C G R R V C V8 103 R C L C G R R V C L3, T5, V8 81 R C I C G R R F C F8 104 R C L C T R R F C L3, T5, F8 82 R C L C R R R V C L3, R5 105 R C L C V L R I C L3, V5, L6 83 R C L C T R R I C L3, T5 106 R C L C V R R V C L3, V5, V8 84 R C L C V R R I C L3, V5 107 R C I C G R R I C L3, V5, F8 85 R C L C G L R V C L3, L6 108 R C I C R L R V C R5, L6, V8 86 R C L C G R R V C L3, V8 109 R C I C R L R F C R5, L6, F8 87 R C L C G R R F C L3, F8 110 R C I C T L R V C T5, L6, V8 88 R C I C R R R V C R5, V8 111 R C I C T L R F C T5, L6, F8 89 R C I C R R R F C R5, F8 112 R C I C V L R V C V5, L6, V8 90 R C I C T R R V C T5, V8 113 R C I C V L R F C V5, L6, F8 91 R C I C T R R F C T5, F8 114 R C L C G L R V C L3, R5, L6, V8 92 R C I C T L R I C T5, L6 115 R C L C G L R I C L3, R5, L6, F8 93 R C I C V L R F C V5, L6 116 R C L C T L R V C L3, T5, L6, V8 94 R C I C R L R I C R5, L6 117 R C L C T L R I C L3, T5, L6, F8 95 R C I C V R R V C V5, V8 118 R C L C V L R V C L3, V5, L6, V8 96 R C I C G R R F C V5, F8 119 R C L C V L R I C L3, V5, L6, F8 *residue modifications are shown in this column. NP# is a reference number for the nonamers.

Retrocyclins of interest include cyclic peptides derived from the peptide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO. 12, in particular a circular homodimer comprising a dimer of the amino acid sequence SEQ ID NO:12, aa 48-56. This retrocyclin has the structure (SEQ ID NO:1; RC100):

G I C R C I C G R G I C R C I C G R X₁ X₂ X₃ X₄ X₅ X₆ X₇ X₈ X₉ X₁₀ X₁₁ X₁₂ X₁₃ X₁₄ X₁₅ X₁₆ X₁₇ X₁₈ Wherein X₁ and X₁₈ are joined by a peptide bond, X₂ and X₁₁; X₄ and X₉, and X₁₃ and X₁₈ are disulfide bonded.

Another retrocyclin of interest is the synthetic analog (SEQ ID NO:2, RC101)

G I C R C I C G K G I C R C I C G R X₁ X₂ X₃ X₄ X₅ X₆ X₇ X₈ X₉ X₁₀ X₁₁ X₁₂ X₁₃ X₁₄ X₁₅ X₁₆ X₁₇ X₁₈ wherein X₁ and X₁₈ are joined by a peptide bond, X₂ and X₁₁; X₄ and X₉, and X₁₃ and X₁₈ are disulfide bonded. Other synthetic analogs, or congeners, of retrocyclin are set forth in SEQ ID NO:3-SEQ ID NO:10.

Some retrocyclins comprising lysine residues or analogs thereof are of particular interest. Lysine analogs include lysine, diaminohexynoic acid, N-epsilon-methyllysine, N-alpha-methyllysine, diaminopimelic acid, 5-aminopentanoic acid, and 7-aminoheptanoic acid and their D-amino acid counterparts. Such sequences are modified from those set forth in SEQ ID NO:19-64; and SEQ ID NO:94-119 by replacing at least one arginine residue with a lysine residue, and in a nonamer, may replace 1 or 2 arginines with lysines. Of particular interest are retrocyclins where at least one of the nonamers set forth in SEQ ID NO:19-64; and SEQ ID NO:94-119 comprises lysine or lysine analog at residue 6.

In some instances, such nonamers have the consensus sequence:

R ^(R)/_(K) I C G ^(R)/_(K) ^(R)/K/_(G) I C (SEQ ID NO: 136) X₁ X₂ X₃ X₄ X₅ X₆ X₇ X₈ X₉ where the retrocyclin molecule itself comprises two independently selected nonamers. Such sequences are desirably reduced in hemagglutination relative to the arginine containing sequence. Among the specific lysine containing retrocyclins of interests are the following:

Identifier Alternative Name Sequence (linear) SEQ ID NO:126 RC114 RC101/103 hybrid GICRCICGK GICRCYCGR SEQ ID NO:127 RC119 R→K Retrocyclin-1 GICKCICGK GICKCICGR SEQ ID NO:128 RC123A Retrocyclin 2A GICRCICGK RICRCICGR SEQ ID NO:129 RC123B Retrocyclin 2B GICRCICGK KICRCICGR SEQ ID NO:130 RC123C Retrocyclin 2C GICRCICGR KICRCICGR SEQ ID NO:131 RC123D Retrocyclin 2D GICRCICGR RICKCICGR SEQ ID NO:132 RC123E Retrocyclin 2E GICKCICGR RICRCICGR SEQ ID NO:133 RC123F Retrocyclin 2F GICRCICGR RICRCICGK

Also of interest are the sequences SEQ ID NO:134: GVCRC ICGRG VCRCI CRR; and SEQ ID NO:135: GVCRC ICGRG VCRCI CGR. Retrocyclins of this type are comprised, or consist, of two linked nonamers independently selected from SEQ ID NO:25 and SEQ ID NO:33.

The sequence of the retrocyclin polypeptides may be altered in various ways known in the art to generate targeted changes in sequence. The polypeptide will usually be substantially similar to the sequences provided herein, i.e. will differ by one amino acid, and may differ by two amino acids. The sequence changes may be substitutions, insertions or deletions.

The protein may be joined to a wide variety of other oligopeptides or proteins for a variety of purposes. By providing for expression of the subject peptides, various post-translational modifications may be achieved. For example, by employing the appropriate coding sequences, one may provide farnesylation or prenylation. In this situation, the peptide will be bound to a lipid group at a terminus, so as to be able to be bound to a lipid membrane, such as a liposome.

Modifications of interest that do not alter primary sequence include chemical derivatization of polypeptides, e.g., acetylation, or carboxylation. Also included are modifications of glycosylation, e.g. those made by modifying the glycosylation patterns of a polypeptide during its synthesis and processing or in further processing steps; e.g. by exposing the polypeptide to enzymes which affect glycosylation, such as mammalian glycosylating or deglycosylating enzymes. Also embraced are sequences that have phosphorylated amino acid residues, e.g. phosphotyrosine, phosphoserine, or phosphothreonine.

Also included in the subject invention are polypeptides that have been modified using ordinary molecular biological techniques and synthetic chemistry so as to improve their resistance to proteolytic degradation or to optimize solubility properties or to render them more suitable as a therapeutic agent. Analogs of such polypeptides include those containing residues other than naturally occurring L-amino acids, e.g. D-amino acids or non-naturally occurring synthetic amino acids.

The subject peptides may be prepared by in vitro synthesis, using conventional methods as known in the art. Various commercial synthetic apparatuses are available, for example, automated synthesizers by Applied Biosystems, Inc., Foster City, Calif., Beckman, etc. By using synthesizers, naturally occurring amino acids may be substituted with unnatural amino acids. The particular sequence and the manner of preparation will be determined by convenience, economics, purity required, and the like.

If desired, various groups may be introduced into the peptide during synthesis or during expression, which allow for linking to other molecules or to a surface. Thus cysteines can be used to make thioethers, histidines for linking to a metal ion complex, carboxyl groups for forming amides or esters, amino groups for forming amides, and the like.

The polypeptides may also be isolated and purified in accordance with conventional methods of recombinant synthesis. A lysate may be prepared of the expression host and the lysate purified using HPLC, exclusion chromatography, gel electrophoresis, affinity chromatography, or other purification technique. For the most part, the compositions which are used will comprise at least 20% by weight of the desired product, more usually at least about 75% by weight, preferably at least about 95% by weight, and for therapeutic purposes, usually at least about 99.5% by weight, in relation to contaminants related to the method of preparation of the product and its purification. Usually, the percentages will be based upon total protein. Genetic sequences encoding demi-defensins are provided herein, e.g. SEQ ID NO:4, 7 and 9.

In one embodiment of the invention, the antimicrobial peptide consists essentially of a polypeptide sequence set forth in any one of SEQ ID NO:1-SEQ ID NO:10. By “consisting essentially of” in the context of a polypeptide described herein, it is meant that the polypeptide is composed of the sequence set forth in the seqlist, which sequence may be flanked by one or more amino acid or other residues that do not materially affect the basic characteristic(s) of the polypeptide.

For some purposes of the invention, for example in the treatment and/or prevention of HIV infection, the active agent may be any one of the circular minidefensins, e.g. human retrocyclins, RTD-1, RTD-2 and RTD-3. Cyclic minidefensins resemble protegrins, antimicrobial β-sheet peptides. RTD-1 is derived from Macacca mulatta, and is a heterodimer containing tandem nonapeptide elements derived from the mature peptides set forth in SEQ ID NO:15 and SEQ ID NO:17. RTD-2 is a homodimer containing, in tandem, two identical nonapeptide elements derived from the mature peptide set forth in SEQ ID NO:17. RTD-3 is a homodimer containing, in tandem, two identical nonapeptide elements derived from the mature peptide set forth in SEQ ID NO:15.

All three RTD's are circular molecules with 18 residues and three intramolecular disulfide bonds. Each RTD is formed by in vivo processing that trims and splices two precursor peptides (“demidefensins”), each of which contributes nine residues (including 3 cysteines) to the mature cyclic peptide. The 18 RTD-1 residues derive from two different demidefensin precursors, RTD-2 and -3 have tandem 9 residue repeats derived from a single demidefensin precursor.

Retrocyclin Coding Sequences

The invention includes nucleic acids having a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:11, 120 or 122; nucleic acids that hybridize under stringent conditions, particularly conditions of high stringency, to the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: SEQ ID NO:11, 120 or 122; genes corresponding to the provided nucleic acids; sequences encoding retrocyclins; and fragments and derivatives thereof. Other nucleic acid compositions contemplated by and within the scope of the present invention will be readily apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art when provided with the disclosure here. Genetic sequences of particular interest include primate sequences, e.g. human, chimpanzee, bonobo, orangutan, gorilla, etc.

Retrocyclin coding sequences can be generated by methods known in the art, e.g. by in vitro synthesis, recombinant methods, etc. to provide a coding sequence to corresponds to a linear retrocyclin polypeptide that could serve as an intermediate in the production of the cyclic retrocyclin molecule. Using the known genetic code, one can produce a suitable coding sequence. For example, the circular polypeptide of retrocyclin (SEQ ID NO: 1) is encoded by the sequence (SEQ ID NO:18) AGG TGC ATT TGC GGA AGA GGA ATT TGC AGG TGC ATT TGC GGA AGA GGA ATT TGC, but since the peptide is circular, it is somewhat arbitrary which codon is selected to be first, allowing this to be based on other criteria, e.g. relative efficiency in purification or cyclization of the predicted product. The polypeptide set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 is encoded by a similar sequence, wherein one of the arginine codons (AGA) is substituted with a lysine codon (AAA or AAG).

The nucleic acids of the invention include nucleic acids having sequence similarity or sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: SEQ ID NO:11, 18, 120 or 122. Nucleic acids having sequence similarity are detected by hybridization under low stringency conditions, for example, at 50° C. and 10×SSC (0.9 M saline/0.09 M sodium citrate) and remain bound when subjected to washing at 55° C. in 1×SSC. Sequence identity can be determined by hybridization under stringent conditions, for example, at 50° C. or higher and 0.1×SSC (9 mM saline/0.9 mM sodium citrate). Hybridization methods and conditions are well known in the art, see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,707,829. Nucleic acids that are substantially identical to the provided nucleic acid sequence, e.g. allelic variants, genetically altered versions of the gene, etc., bind to SEQ ID NO: SEQ ID NO:11, 18, 120 or 122 under stringent hybridization conditions. By using probes, particularly labeled probes of DNA sequences, one can isolate homologous or related genes. The source of homologous genes can be any species, e.g. primate species, particularly human; rodents, such as rats and mice; canines, felines, bovines, ovines, equines, fish, yeast, nematodes, etc.

In one embodiment, hybridization is performed using at least 18 contiguous nucleotides (nt) of SEQ ID NO:1 and SEQ ID NO:18, or a DNA encoding the polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:1-10, 19-64, or 74-119. Such a probe will preferentially hybridize with a nucleic acid comprising the complementary sequence, allowing the identification and retrieval of the nucleic acids that uniquely hybridize to the selected probe. Probes of more than 18 nt can be used, e.g., probes of from about 18 nt to about 25, 50, 100 or 250 nt, but 18 nt usually represents sufficient sequence for unique identification.

Nucleic acids of the invention also include naturally occurring variants of the nucleotide sequences (e.g., degenerate variants, allelic variants, etc.). Variants of the nucleic acids of the invention are identified by hybridization of putative variants with nucleotide sequences disclosed herein, preferably by hybridization under stringent conditions. For example, by using appropriate wash conditions, variants of the nucleic acids of the invention can be identified where the allelic variant exhibits at most about 25-30% base pair (bp) mismatches relative to the selected nucleic acid probe. In general, allelic variants contain 15-25% bp mismatches, and can contain as little as even 5-15%, or 2-5%, or 1-2% bp mismatches, as well as a single bp mismatch.

The invention also encompasses homologs corresponding to the nucleic acids of SEQ ID NO:5, where the source of homologous genes can be any mammalian species, e.g., primate species, particularly human; rodents, such as rats; canines, felines, bovines, ovines, equines, fish, yeast, nematodes, etc. Between mammalian species, e.g., human and mouse, homologs generally have substantial sequence similarity, e.g., at least 75% sequence identity, usually at least 90%, more usually at least 95% between nucleotide sequences. Sequence similarity is calculated based on a reference sequence, which may be a subset of a larger sequence, such as a conserved motif, coding region, flanking region, etc. A reference sequence will usually be at least about 18 contiguous nt long, more usually at least about 30 nt long, and may extend to the complete sequence that is being compared. Algorithms for sequence analysis are known in the art, such as gapped BLAST, described in Altschul et al. Nucl. Acids Res. (1997) 25:3389-3402.

The subject nucleic acids can be cDNAs or genomic DNAs, as well as fragments thereof, particularly fragments that encode a biologically active polypeptide and/or are useful in the methods disclosed herein. The term “cDNA” as used herein is intended to include all nucleic acids that share the arrangement of sequence elements found in native mature mRNA species, where sequence elements are exons and 3′ and 5′ non-coding regions. Normally mRNA species have contiguous exons, with the intervening introns, when present, being removed by nuclear RNA splicing, to create a continuous open reading frame encoding a polypeptide of the invention.

A genomic sequence of interest comprises the nucleic acid present between the initiation codon and the stop codon, as defined in the listed sequences, including all of the introns that are normally present in a native chromosome. It can further include the 3′ and 5′ untranslated regions found in the mature mRNA. It can further include specific transcriptional and translational regulatory sequences, such as promoters, enhancers, etc., including about 1 kb, but possibly more, of flanking genomic DNA at either the 5′ and 3′ end of the transcribed region. The genomic DNA can be isolated as a fragment of 100 kbp or smaller; and substantially free of flanking chromosomal sequence. The genomic DNA flanking the coding region, either 3′ and 5′, or internal regulatory sequences as sometimes found in introns, contains sequences required for proper tissue, stage-specific, or disease-state specific expression.

The nucleic acid compositions of the subject invention can encode all or a part of the subject polypeptides. Double or single stranded fragments can be obtained from the DNA sequence by chemically synthesizing oligonucleotides in accordance with conventional methods, by restriction enzyme digestion, by PCR amplification, etc. Isolated nucleic acids and nucleic acid fragments of the invention comprise at least about 18, about 50, about 100, to about 200 contiguous nt selected from the nucleic acid sequence as shown in SEQ ID NO: SEQ ID NO:11, 120 or 122. For the most part, fragments will be of at least 18 nt, usually at least 25 nt, and up to at least about 50 contiguous nt in length or more.

Probes specific to the nucleic acid of the invention can be generated using the nucleic acid sequence disclosed in SEQ ID NO:11, or a DNA encoding the polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:1-10. The probes are preferably at least about 18 nt, 25 nt or more of the corresponding contiguous sequence. The probes can be synthesized chemically or can be generated from longer nucleic acids using restriction enzymes. The probes can be labeled, for example, with a radioactive, biotinylated, or fluorescent tag. Preferably, probes are designed based upon an identifying sequence of one of the provided sequences. More preferably, probes are designed based on a contiguous sequence of one of the subject nucleic acids that remain unmasked following application of a masking program for masking low complexity (e.g., BLASTX) to the sequence, i.e., one would select an unmasked region, as indicated by the nucleic acids outside the poly-n stretches of the masked sequence produced by the masking program.

The nucleic acids of the invention are isolated and obtained in substantial purity, generally as other than an intact chromosome. Usually, the nucleic acids, either as DNA or RNA, will be obtained substantially free of other naturally-occurring nucleic acid sequences, generally being at least about 50%, usually at least about 90% pure and are typically “recombinant,” e.g., flanked by one or more nucleotides with which it is not normally associated on a naturally occurring chromosome.

Retrocyclin encoding nucleic acids can be provided as a linear molecule or within a circular molecule, and can be provided within autonomously replicating molecules (vectors) or within molecules without replication sequences. Expression of the nucleic acids can be regulated by their own or by other regulatory sequences known in the art. The nucleic acids of the invention can be introduced into suitable host cells using a variety of techniques available in the art, such as transferrin polycation-mediated DNA transfer, transfection with naked or encapsulated nucleic acids, liposome-mediated DNA transfer, intracellular transportation of DNA-coated latex beads, protoplast fusion, viral infection, electroporation, gene gun, calcium phosphate-mediated transfection, and the like.

Expression vectors may be used to introduce a retrocyclin coding sequence into a cell. Such vectors generally have convenient restriction sites located near the promoter sequence to provide for the insertion of nucleic acid sequences. Transcription cassettes may be prepared comprising a transcription initiation region, the target gene or fragment thereof, and a transcriptional termination region. The transcription cassettes may be introduced into a variety of vectors, e.g. plasmid; retrovirus, e.g. lentivirus; adenovirus; and the like, where the vectors are able to transiently or stably be maintained in the cells, usually for a period of at least about one day, more usually for a period of at least about several days to several weeks.

The gene or retrocyclin peptide may be introduced into tissues or host cells by any number of routes, including viral infection, microinjection, or fusion of vesicles. Jet injection may also be used for intramuscular administration, as described by Furth et al. (1992) Anal Biochem 205:365-368. The DNA may be coated onto gold microparticles, and delivered intradermally by a particle bombardment device, or “gene gun” as described in the literature (see, for example, Tang et al. (1992) Nature 356:152-154), where gold microprojectiles are coated with the stresscopin or DNA, then bombarded into skin cells.

Methods of Use

Formulations of retrocyclins are administered to a host suffering from an ongoing bacterial or viral infection or who faces exposure to a bacterial or viral infection. Antiviral compositions may also utilize other circular mini-defensins, e.g. RC-101, RTD-1, -2, and -3, alone or in combination with retrocyclin. Administration may be topical, localized or systemic, depending on the specific microorganism. Generally the dosage will be sufficient to decrease the microbial or viral population by at least about 50%, usually by at least 1 log, and may be by 2 or more logs. The compounds of the present invention are administered at a dosage that reduces the pathogen population while minimizing any side-effects. It is contemplated that the composition will be obtained and used under the guidance of a physician for in vivo use. Retrocyclins are particularly useful for killing Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli, and for preventing infection by certain viruses, particularly enveloped retroviruses, e.g. enveloped retroviruses such as HIV-1, HIV-2, FIV, and the like.

Retrocylins are also useful for in vitro formulations to kill microbes, particularly where one does not wish to introduce quantities of conventional antibiotics. For example, retrocyclins may be added to animal and/or human food preparations, or to blood products intended for transfusion to reduce the risk of consequent bacterial or viral infection. This may be of particular interest since a common route of infection of E. coli and L. monocytogenes is the gastrointestinal tract. Retrocyclins may be included as an additive for in vitro cultures of cells, to prevent the overgrowth of microbes in tissue culture.

The susceptibility of a particular microbe or virus to killing or inhibition by retrocyclins may be determined by in vitro testing, as detailed in the experimental section. Typically a culture of the microbe is combined with retrocyclins at varying concentrations for a period of time sufficient to allow the protein to act, usually ranging from about one hour to one day. The viable microbes are then counted, and the level of killing determined. Two stage radial diffusion assay is a convenient alternative to determining the MIC or minimum inhibitory concentration of an antimicrobial agent.

Viral pathogens of interest include retroviral pathogens, e.g. HIV-1; HIV-2, HTLV, FIV, SIV, etc. Microbes of interest, but not limited to the following, include: Citrobacter sp.; Enterobacter sp.; Escherichia sp., e.g. E. coli; Klebsiella sp.; Morganella sp.; Proteus sp.; Providencia sp.; Salmonella sp., e.g. S. typhi, S. typhimurium; Serratia sp.; Shigella sp.; Pseudomonas sp., e.g. P. aeruginosa; Yersinia sp., e.g. Y. pestis, Y. pseudotuberculosis, Y enterocolitica; Franciscella sp.; Pasturella sp.; Vibrio sp., e.g. V. cholerae, V. parahemolyticus; Campylobacter sp., e.g. C. jejuni; Haemophilus sp., e.g. H. influenzae, H. ducreyi; Bordetella sp., e.g. B. pertussis, B. bronchiseptica, B. parapertussis; Brucella sp., Neisseria sp., e.g. N. gonorrhoeae, N. meningitidis, etc. Other bacteria of interest include Legionella sp., e.g. L. pneumophila; Listeria sp., e.g. L. monocytogenes; Staphylococcus sp., e.g. S. aureus Mycoplasma sp., e.g. M. hominis, M. pneumoniae; Mycobacterium sp., e.g. M. tuberculosis, M. leprae; Treponema sp., e.g. T. pallidum; Borrelia sp., e.g. B. burgdorferi; Leptospirae sp.; Rickettsia sp., e.g. R. rickettsii, R. typhi; Chlamydia sp., e.g. C. trachomatis, C. pneumoniae, C. psittaci; Helicobacter sp., e.g. H. pylori, etc.

Various methods for administration may be employed. For the prevention of HIV infection, administration to mucosal surfaces is of particular interest, e.g. vaginal, rectal, etc. The polypeptide formulation may be given orally, or may be injected intravascularly, subcutaneously, peritoneally, by aerosol, opthalmically, intra-bladder, topically, etc. For example, methods of administration by inhalation are well-known in the art. The dosage of the therapeutic formulation will vary widely, depending on the specific retrocyclin or demi-defensin to be administered, the nature of the disease, the frequency of administration, the manner of administration, the clearance of the agent from the host, and the like. The initial dose may be larger, followed by smaller maintenance doses. The dose may be administered as infrequently as weekly or biweekly, or fractionated into smaller doses and administered once or several times daily, semi-weekly, etc. to maintain an effective dosage level. In many cases, oral administration will require a higher dose than if administered intravenously. The amide bonds, as well as the amino and carboxy termini, may be modified for greater stability on oral administration.

Formulations

The compounds of this invention can be incorporated into a variety of formulations for therapeutic administration. More particularly, the compounds of the present invention can be formulated into pharmaceutical compositions by combination with appropriate, pharmaceutically acceptable carriers or diluents, and may be formulated into preparations in solid, semi-solid, liquid or gaseous forms, such as tablets, capsules, powders, granules, ointments, solutions, suppositories, injections, inhalants, gels, microspheres, lotions, and aerosols. As such, administration of the compounds can be achieved in various ways, including oral, vaginal, buccal, rectal, parenteral, intraperitoneal, intradermal, transdermal, intratracheal, etc., administration. The retrocyclins may be systemic after administration or may be localized by the use of an implant or other formulation that acts to retain the active dose at the site of implantation.

The compounds of the present invention can be administered alone, in combination with each other, or they can be used in combination with other known compounds (e.g., perforin, anti-inflammatory agents, antibiotics, etc.) In pharmaceutical dosage forms, the compounds may be administered in the form of their pharmaceutically acceptable salts. The following methods and excipients are merely exemplary and are in no way limiting.

For oral preparations, the compounds can be used alone or in combination with appropriate additives to make tablets, powders, granules or capsules, for example, with conventional additives, such as lactose, mannitol, corn starch or potato starch; with binders, such as crystalline cellulose, cellulose derivatives, acacia, corn starch or gelatins; with disintegrators, such as corn starch, potato starch or sodium carboxymethylcellulose; with lubricants, such as talc or magnesium stearate; and if desired, with diluents, buffering agents, moistening agents, preservatives and flavoring agents.

The compounds can be formulated into preparations for injections by dissolving, suspending or emulsifying them in an aqueous or nonaqueous solvent, such as vegetable or other similar oils, synthetic aliphatic acid glycerides, esters of higher aliphatic acids or propylene glycol; and if desired, with conventional additives such as solubilizers, isotonic agents, suspending agents, emulsifying agents, stabilizers and preservatives.

The compounds can be utilized in aerosol formulation to be administered via inhalation.

The compounds of the present invention can be formulated into pressurized acceptable propellants such as dichlorodifluoromethane, propane, nitrogen and the like.

The compounds can be used as lotions, for example to prevent infection of burns, by formulation with conventional additives such as solubilizers, isotonic agents, suspending agents, emulsifying agents, stabilizers and preservatives.

Furthermore, the compounds can be made into suppositories by mixing with a variety of bases such as emulsifying bases or water-soluble bases. The compounds of the present invention can be administered rectally via a suppository. The suppository can include vehicles such as cocoa butter, carbowaxes and polyethylene glycols, which melt at body temperature, yet are solidified at room temperature.

Unit dosage forms for oral, vaginal or rectal administration such as syrups, elixirs, and suspensions may be provided wherein each dosage unit, for example, teaspoonful, tablespoonful, tablet or suppository, contains a predetermined amount of the composition containing one or more compounds of the present invention. Similarly, unit dosage forms for injection or intravenous administration may comprise the compound of the present invention in a composition as a solution in sterile water, normal saline or another pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

Implants for sustained release formulations are well-known in the art. Implants are formulated as microspheres, slabs, etc. with biodegradable or non-biodegradable polymers. For example, polymers of lactic acid and/or glycolic acid form an erodible polymer that is well-tolerated by the host. The implant containing retrocyclins is placed in proximity to the site of infection, so that the local concentration of active agent is increased relative to the rest of the body.

The term “unit dosage form”, as used herein, refers to physically discrete units suitable as unitary dosages for human and animal subjects, each unit containing a predetermined quantity of compounds of the present invention calculated in an amount sufficient to produce the desired effect in association with a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent, carrier or vehicle. The specifications for the unit dosage forms of the present invention depend on the particular compound employed and the effect to be achieved, and the pharmacodynamics associated with the compound in the host.

The pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, such as vehicles, adjuvants, carriers or diluents, are readily available to the public. Moreover, pharmaceutically acceptable auxiliary substances, such as pH adjusting and buffering agents, tonicity adjusting agents, stabilizers, wetting agents and the like, are readily available to the public.

Typical dosages for systemic administration range from 0.1 μg to 100 milligrams per kg weight of subject per administration. A typical dosage may be one tablet taken from two to six times daily, or one time-release capsule or tablet taken once a day and containing a proportionally higher content of active ingredient. The time-release effect may be obtained by capsule materials that dissolve at different pH values, by capsules that release slowly by osmotic pressure, or by any other known means of controlled release.

Those of skill will readily appreciate that dose levels can vary as a function of the specific compound, the severity of the symptoms and the susceptibility of the subject to side effects. Some of the specific compounds are more potent than others. Preferred dosages for a given compound are readily determinable by those of skill in the art by a variety of means. A preferred means is to measure the physiological potency of a given compound.

The use of liposomes as a delivery vehicle is one method of interest. The liposomes fuse with the cells of the target site and deliver the contents of the lumen intracellularly. The liposomes are maintained in contact with the cells for sufficient time for fusion, using various means to maintain contact, such as isolation, binding agents, and the like. In one aspect of the invention, liposomes are designed to be aerosolized for pulmonary administration. Liposomes may be prepared with purified proteins or peptides that mediate fusion of membranes, such as Sendai virus or influenza virus, etc. The lipids may be any useful combination of known liposome forming lipids, including cationic or zwitterionic lipids, such as phosphatidylcholine. The remaining lipid will be normally be neutral or acidic lipids, such as cholesterol, phosphatidyl serine, phosphatidyl glycerol, and the like.

For preparing the liposomes, the procedure described by Kato et al. (1991) J. Biol. Chem. 266:3361 may be used. Briefly, the lipids and lumen composition containing peptides are combined in an appropriate aqueous medium, conveniently a saline medium where the total solids will be in the range of about 1-10 weight percent. After intense agitation for short periods of time, from about 5-60 sec., the tube is placed in a warm water bath, from about 25-40° C. and this cycle repeated from about 5-10 times. The composition is then sonicated for a convenient period of time, generally from about 1-10 sec. and may be further agitated by vortexing. The volume is then expanded by adding aqueous medium, generally increasing the volume by about from 1-2 fold, followed by shaking and cooling. This method allows for the incorporation into the lumen of high molecular weight molecules.

Formulations with Other Active Agents

For use in the subject methods, retrocyclins may be formulated with other pharmaceutically active agents, particularly other antimicrobial agents. Other agents of interest include a wide variety of antibiotics, as known in the art. Classes of antibiotics include penicillins, e.g. penicillin G, penicillin V, methicillin, oxacillin, carbenicillin, nafcillin, ampicillin, etc.; penicillins in combination with β-lactamase inhibitors, cephalosporins, e.g. cefaclor, cefazolin, cefuroxime, moxalactam, etc.; carbapenems; monobactams; aminoglycosides; tetracyclines; macrolides; lincomycins; polymyxins; sulfonamides; quinolones; cloramphenical; metronidazole; spectinomycin; trimethoprim; vancomycin; etc.

Cytokines may also be included in a retrocyclin formulation, e.g. interferon γ, tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin 12, etc.

Antiviral agents, e.g. acyclovir, gancyclovir, etc., and other circular mini-defensins (theta defensins) may also be included in retrocyclin formulations.

EXPERIMENTAL

The following examples are put forth so as to provide those of ordinary skill in the art with a complete disclosure and description of how to make and use the subject invention, and are not intended to limit the scope of what is regarded as the invention. Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to the numbers used (e.g. amounts, temperature, concentrations, etc.) but some experimental errors and deviations should be allowed for. Unless otherwise indicated, parts are parts by weight, molecular weight is average molecular weight, temperature is in degrees centigrade; and pressure is at or near atmospheric.

Sexual and mother-to-neonate (vertical) transmission through mucosal surfaces have been the most common routes of HIV-1 spread throughout the world. Although much attention has been focused on vaccine development for HIV-1, progress has been slow and there is an urgent need to find alternative approaches to prevent infections caused by HIV-1. Self-applied prophylactic agents to prevent mucosal, particularly vaginal or rectal, transmission of HIV-1 have the advantage of empowering vulnerable receptive partners to take effective measures for their own protection. In a search for novel compounds active against HIV-1, it was discovered that certain antimicrobial peptides, the circular minidefensins from the rhesus macaque, could inhibit HIV-1 replication. This prompted an investigation as to whether humans produce circular minidefensins. Although there is no evidence that these proteins are produced in humans, clearly some primate ancestors once made retrocyclin, because it continues to exist in contemporary humans as an expressed pseudogene.

After discovering an mRNA molecule in human bone marrow that was highly homologous to rhesus circular minidefensins (88.9% identity at the nucleotide level), solid phase peptide synthesis was used to create the peptide (“retrocyclin”) whose sequence it encoded. Retrocyclin belongs to the 0 defensin subfamily (also referred to as cyclic minidefensins). The antimicrobial properties of retrocyclin resemble those of rhesus θ-defensins. However, retrocyclin is highly effective in preventing the infection of CD4⁺ cells by X4 and R5 strains of HIV-1 in vitro.

Example 1 Circular Minidefensins can Block HIV-1 Replication

It is shown herein that retrocyclin, a circular minidefensin, is potently active against both X4 and R5 strains of HIV-1. The initial descriptions of circular minidefensins came from studies of Macaca mulatta, the rhesus macaque monkey. The first such peptide, RTD-1, was called a rhesus theta defensin (RTD), which are also referred to as “cyclic minidefensins”. The peptides encoded by the mRNA precursors may be referred to as “demidefensins”.

RTD-2 and RTD-3, which was isolated from the bone marrow of rhesus monkeys, are circular, 18 amino acid peptides that contained three intramolecular disulfide bonds. They are similar to RTD-1, the circular (θ) defensin previously described by Tang et al., However, whereas the 18 residues of RTD-1 represent spliced 9 amino acid fragments derived from two different minidefensin precursors, RTD-2 and -3 comprise tandem 9 residue repeats derived from a single RTD-1 precursor. Thus, circular minidefensins are processed by a novel post-translational system that can generates a degree of effector molecule diversity without requiring commensurate genome expansion.

Retrocyclin and the other circular minidefensins we prepared were synthesized, folded, circularized and purified essentially. The antiviral activities of RTD-1, RTD-2 and RTD-3 are shown in FIG. 1. For these studies, the X4 HIV-1 strain IIIB was utilized.

Immortalized CD4⁺ H9 cells, which are permissive for infection with this strain, were maintained in RPMI supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated fetal calf serum (FCS), 10 mM HEPES, 2 mM glutamine, 100 U of penicillin/ml, and 10 μg of streptomycin/ml (R10 media). Cells (2.5×10⁵/100 μl) were incubated with virus (multiplicity of infection (MOI)=10⁻²) in the presence or absence of 20 μg/ml RTD-1, RTD-2 or RTD-3 for 3 hrs at 37° C./5% CO₂. The cells were washed in R10 media, seeded in 48-well tissue culture plates in 1 ml R10 media, and incubated at 37° C./5% CO₂ for 9 days. Aliquots of cell supernatant were removed at the specified time points and analyzed by a sensitive ELISA (DuPont NEN) that quantitates p24 antigen of HIV-1. The three circular rhesus minidefensins were similarly active, inhibiting HIV-1 by 100-1000 fold by 9 days post-inoculation (note the logarithmic scale).

Example 2 Identification and Structural Characterization of Retrocyclin

To search for human circular minidefensins, two primers were prepared based on the monkey minidefensin cDNA sequences (GenBank AF 184156, 184157, 184158). When PCR was performed on Marathon-Ready human bone marrow cDNA (Clontech, Palo Alto, Calif.), a 264 bp amplified product was recovered. To obtain its 3′ and 5′ side sequences, Marathon-Ready human bone marrow cDNA was amplified using a 3′-RACE kit (Gibco BRL, Gaithersburg, Md.) and 5′-RACE kit from Boehringer Mannheim (Indianapolis, Ind.).

At the nucleotide level, this product (retrocyclin) was ˜89% identical to the demidefensin precursors of rhesus RTD-1 (called precursors 1a and 1b). FIG. 2 shows the peptide sequences of demidefensin 1 and preproretrocyclin. Residues incorporated into the mature circular minidefensins are boxed and all stop codons are represented by solid circles. Although a stop codon within the human transcript's signal sequence should abort translation, the otherwise high conservation of rhesus and human mRNA's suggested that humans may have acquired this mutation relatively recently in primate evolution.

Three orangutan retrocyclin genes have been sequences. One of these climes has the silencing stop codon in the signal sequence and therefore resembles human retrocyclin. The other two orangutan genes appear to be functional, i.e. when translated they would produce demi-defensins, the precursors of cyclic minidefensins.

Human leukocytes were examined for the presence of retrocyclin or similar peptides, but, as expected from the presence of the signal sequence's stop codon, none was found. Thus synthetic retrocyclin represents the circular minidefensin that would have formed: a) if the signal sequence mutation were absent, and b) if the precursor underwent homologous pairing so that its boxed residues (see FIG. 2) formed both halves of the circular molecule.

In phylogenetic studies of the retrocyclin demidefensin gene, the premature stop codon in the signal sequence was found to be present in four anthropoid species (humans, gorillas, chimpanzees, pygmy chimpanzees) and not present in the genes of a fifth (orangutangs). The demidefensin gene also appears intact (i.e., no premature stop codon) in the two catarrhine (Old World Monkey) species examined to date, Macaca mulatta and Macaca nemestrina. These findings suggest that native retrocyclin peptides were last produced by a primate ancestor of humans and other anthropoids that lived between 6 and 15 million years ago (mya). This is between the time that orangutang and human lineage diverged (15 mya) and before the divergence of the chimpanzee and human lineages (6 mya). These ongoing studies of primate phylogeny may yield sequence information about additional cyclic minidefensins whose native counterparts are extinct.

Retrocyclin synthesis. Peptides were synthesized at a 0.25 mmol scale with a Perkin-Elmer ABI 431A Synthesizer, using pre-derivatized polyethylene glycol polystyrene arginine resin (PerSeptive Biosystems, Framingham, Mass.), FastMoc™ chemistry, and double coupling for all residues. The crude peptide was reduced under nitrogen, for 15 hours at 50° C. with excess dithiothreitol in 6 M guanidine.HCl, 0.2 M Tris.HCl and 0.2 mM EDTA (pH 8.2). The reaction was stopped with glacial acetic acid (final concentration, 5%) and the reduced peptide was stored under nitrogen until purified by RP-HPLC. After this step, the peptide appeared homogeneous and its mass (1942.5, by MALDI-TOF MS) agreed well with its theoretical mass. The reduced peptide (0.1 mg/ml) was oxidized, cyclized and purified essentially as described by Tang et al., supra. The MALDI-TOF MS mass of retrocyclin (1918.5 Da) agreed well with its expected mass. CD spectra were obtained at 25° C. from an AVIV 62DS spectropolarimeter (AVIV, Lakewood, N.J.).

RTD-1 and retrocyclin have very similar CD spectra, with largely β-sheet structures stabilized by disulfide linkages and connected by turns (FIG. 3A). Antimicrobial peptides with similar spectra include tachyplesins, protegrins, and circularized defensins. FIG. 3B, a backbone ribbon model of retrocyclin, was made by templating its sequence on the structure of protegrin PG-1 and cyclizing it. The resulting structure was annealed by molecular dynamics and energy minimized. FIG. 3D is a cartoon version of FIG. 3B, designed primarily to show the placement of the cysteine and arginine molecules. FIG. 3C is a similar cartoon of rhesus RTD-1.

Retrocyclin is a selectively salt-insensitive antibacterial peptide. The effects of NaCl on the antimicrobial activity of retrocyclin and RTD-1, from two-stage radial diffusion assays, are compared in FIG. 4. The peptides showed very similar behavior. Under low salt conditions, both peptides were highly effective (minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC)<3 μg/ml) against all four test organisms: Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus. Their strong activity against E. coli and L. monocytogenes persisted in physiological (100 mM) NaCl, and even hypersalinity (175 mM NaCl) was only modestly inhibitory. In contrast, neither peptide was effective (MIC >50 μg/ml) against S. aureus or P. aeruginosa in physiological or high salt concentrations. Retrocyclin's activity is likely to be preserved in the ionic concentration of the vaginal mucosa.

Retrocyclin potently inhibits HIV-1 replication of R5 and X4 viruses. The antiretroviral properties of retrocyclin are shown in FIG. 5. Either HIV-1-permissive H9 cells were used as targets, or primary CD4⁺ lymphocytes from HIV-1-seronegative donors generated from freshly purified peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) stimulated with a CD3-CD8 bispecific monoclonal antibody. After approximately 7 days, when 98% of these cells co-expressed CD3 and CD4, they were infected with HIV-1 with or without retrocyclin or other test peptide. These cells were maintained in RPMI containing 10% FCS supplemented with 2 mM glutamine, 100 U of penicillin/ml, 10 μg of streptomycin/ml, and 50 U of interleukin 2/ml (R10-50 media).

Retrocyclin (10-20 μg/ml) afforded complete suppression of viral replication to CD4⁺-selected PBMC challenged with two different strains of HIV-1: IIIB (an X4 strain) and JR-CSF (an R5 strain), or H9 human T cells challenged with IIIB. Note that the concentration of p24 antigen is presented on a log-scale and that the rhesus circular minidefensins, RTD-1 (FIG. 5 and FIG. 1) and RTD-2 and RTD-3 were protective to a lesser extent than retrocyclin. Additionally, the antiretroviral activities of T140 (20 μg/ml; FIG. 5) and T22, analogs of polyphemusins from horseshoe crabs that were previously shown to protect against X4, but not R5, infections, were confirmed in the present study. Microbicides, such as retrocyclin, that target both X4 and R5 viruses be more effective than agents that preferentially inhibit viruses of a single tropism.

Examining the effect of adding retrocyclin at various times pre- and post-HIV-1 infection. To determine if retrocyclin is effective against HIV-1 when added post-infection, we either: 1) added retrocyclin at the time of HIV-1 infection, then washed away the peptide, or 2) added retrocyclin at various times post-infection. Primary CD4⁺ PBMC were incubated with HIV-IIIB (FIG. 6) or HIV-JR-CSF for 3 hours in the presence or absence of 20 μg/ml retrocyclin. The cells were subsequently washed in media, and incubated an additional 9 days. Retrocyclin (20 μg/ml) was added back to some of the cultures at time points specified in FIG. 6 and infection was monitored by p24 ELISA as previously described. Although retrocyclin was most active when administered at the time of infection, and when present in culture throughout the 9 day incubation, retrocyclin administered as late as 24 hours after initial infection still reduced the p24 concentration by nearly 1000-fold.

Cyclization and oxidation are necessary for retrocyclin's antiviral activity. Mature retrocyclin was prepared by a three-step process. Its two intermediate forms, as well as the final retrocyclin product were tested in our standard assay of HIV-1 infectivity: p24 ELISA of HIV-IIIB infection of H9 cells (FIG. 7). Intermediate 1 (open triangles) is the linearized retrocyclin octadecapeptide with 6 reduced cysteine thiol groups. Intermediate 2 (closed triangles) is a noncyclic b-hairpin octadecapeptide with 3 intramolecular cystine disulfide bonds. Retrocyclin (open squares), is a cyclized octadecapeptide with 3 disulfide bonds. Note that only the “mature” form of retrocyclin was antiviral, compared to control (no retrocyclin, open circles). Unlike retrocyclin, the linearized octadecapeptide was highly cytotoxic, as measured by trypan blue exclusion, and treated cells did not survive past 6 days.

Retrocyclin is not cytotoxic. Cytotoxicity determinations were made with a Cell Proliferation Kit from Boehringer Mannheim used according to the manufacturer's instructions. The procedure measures the reduction of the yellowish MTT molecule (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) to a dark blue formazan. Retrocyclin exhibited little to no cytotoxicity against H9 cells (FIG. 8) and ME-180 cervical carcinoma cells at 100 μg/ml, a concentration that is far higher than the concentrations required for complete protection against HIV-1 infection (10 μg/ml). Additionally, neither 20 μg/ml retrocyclin nor RC-101 were cytotoxic to HIV-1-infected H9 cells and CD4⁺ PBMC as measured by trypan-blue exclusion (Table 1). Retrocyclin was not hemolytic for human erythrocytes.

TABLE 1 Cytotoxicity of 20 μg/ml peptide against H9 cells and CD4⁺ PBMC (peripheral blood mononuclear cells) as measured by Trypan blue exclusion. Cells; virus no peptide* Retrocyclin CD4⁺ PBMC; no virus 1.07 0.98 H9; IIIB 0.78 1.20 CD4⁺ PBMC; IIIB 1.71 1.68 CD4⁺ PBMC; JR-CSF 0.90 1.58 *Values expressed as the average number of cells × 10⁶/ml for 2–3 experiments. N.D. = no data.

Construction and characterization of retrocyclin congeners. To date, we have constructed over a dozen congeners of retrocyclin, “RC-101”, “RC-102”, “RC-103”, etc. and have used them to commence a structure-activity analysis of the retrocyclin's antiviral and antimicrobial effects. These peptides, whose sequences are shown in Table 2, were synthesized, oxidized, cyclized, and purified as described above for retrocyclin. RC-101 was prepared because retrocyclin, a circular peptide without free N-terminal or side-chain amine groups, is not well suited for fluorescent-conjugation. RC-101 is identical in sequence to retrocyclin (RC-100) except for the presence of an Arg₉→Lys₉ substitution. This modification preserves the net cationic charge of the peptide and provides an available epsilon-amino group in lysine's side chain. Importantly, RC-101 was as active as retrocyclin in protecting cells from infection by HIV-1 (FIG. 11), indicating that substitutions in the primary sequence of retrocyclins can be made without losing anti-retroviral activity. The labeling of RC-101 with amine-reactive probes will be described in a later section.

Five additional analogues (RC 110-114) have been synthesized, cyclized and purified. RC-110 (Inverso-enantioretrocyclin), a cyclic peptide composed exclusively of D amino acids, has a sequence that is identical to retrocyclin, but with its residues placed in reverse order.

The ability of RC100 and several analogues described in Table 2 to protect cells from infection by X4 (HIV-IIIB) and R5 (JR-CSF) strains of HIV-1 is shown in FIG. 9. The structure of retrocyclin itself is shown in FIG. 10, with its residues numbered to correspond to Table 2.

The p24 assay results shown in FIG. 9 are on a logarithmic scale. A horizontal reference line that passes through 100 on the ordinate scale corresponds to 1 pg/ml of p24 antigen. Results from 3 experiments (each performed with PBMC from a different donor) are shown. Retrocyclin was uniformly protective against both strains of HIV-1 in all of the experiments. Most of the mono-tyrosine substituted amino acid congeners of retrocyclin (RC-102, RC-103, RC-105, RC-106, and RC-108) were either inactive or only modestly active in inhibiting HIV-1 infection by Strain IIIB. In contrast, RC-102, RC-103 and RC-104 showed considerable ability to protect cells from infection by the JR-CSF strain (R5).

These results allow some hypotheses about the mechanism of action of retrocyclins to be formulated. Because RC-112 (enantioRetrocyclin) was relatively ineffective, chiral interactions between retrocyclin and one or more receptors on the cell and/or virus surface are likely to participate in the protective mechanism. Since certain analogues (RC-102, RC-103 and perhaps RC-104) manifested substantial activity against the R5 strain but were relatively ineffective against the X4 strain, the mechanisms whereby retrocyclin inhibits these strains are not identical. The lack of efficacy of RC-106, RC-107 and RC-108 (each containing a tyrosine for arginine replacemene) suggests that ionic interactions involving the positively charged arginine residues in position 4, 9, and 13 of retrocyclin (see the model in FIG. 10) with oppositely charged groups (e.g., phosphate) on the surface of the target cell or HIV-1 virion also participate in the process. In preliminary surface plasmon resonance (SPR) experiments, we have observed that retrocyclin binds with high affinity to certain sphingolipids (e.g., galactosylceramide) that are present in cell-surface rafts, and have been implicated in the cellular uptake of HIV-1 virions.

TABLE 2 Primary amino acid sequence of selected retrocyclin congeners. Name Avg. SEQ ID NO: Peptide (or comment) (Da) MW Amino acid sequence 1 RC-100* Retrocyclin 1918.4 GICRCICGRGICRCICGR 2 RC-101 R₉K-Retrocyclin 1890.4 GICRCICGKGICRCICGR 3 RC-102 I₆Y-Retrocyclin 1968.5 GICRCYCGRGICRCICGR 4 RC-103 I₁₅Y-Retrocyclin 1968.5 GICRCICGRGICRCYCGR 5 RC-104 I₂Y-Retrocyclin 1968.5 GYCRCICGRGICRCICGR 6 RC-105 I₁₁Y-Retrocyclin 1968.5 GICRCICGRGYCRCICGR 7 RC-106 R₄Y-Retrocyclin 1925.4 GICYCICGRGICRCICGR 8 RC-107 R₉Y-Retrocyclin 1925.4 GICICICGYGICRCICGR 9 RC-108 R₁₃Y-Retrocyclin 1925.4 GICICICGRGICYCICGR 10 RC-109** GICICICGRGICRCICGY 19 RC-110 Inverso-enantio- 1918.4 RGCICRCIGRGCICRCIG Retrocyclin (ALL D) 20 RC-111 Inverso- 1918.4 RGCICRCIGRGCICRCIG retrocyclin 21 RC-112 enantio-retrocyclin 1918.4 GICRCICGRGICRCICGR (all D) 22 RC-113 enantio- 1890.4 GICRCICGKGICRCICGR RC-101 (all D) 23 RC-114 RC-101/103 1940.4 GICRCICGKGICRCYCGR hybrid With the exception of RC-109, all of the above peptides are cyclic. *RC-100 is a synonym for retrocyclin, RC-111 (inverso-retrocyclin) is composed of L-amino acids; RC-110, 112 and 113 are composed exclusively of D-amino acids. RC-109 failed to cyclize, and has not been tested further.

Retrocyclin does not directly inactivate HIV-1. To determine if retrocyclin directly inactivated HIV-1 virions, HIV-IIIB (MOI 10⁻²) was incubated with 2 μg/ml, 20 μg/ml, or 200 μg/ml retrocyclin for 30 min at room temperature in R10 media. The mixture was diluted 190-fold in R10 media, to dilute retrocyclin below its effective antiviral concentrations (no significant antiviral activity at <2 μg/ml; n=5), and used to infect 5×10⁵H₉CD4⁺ cells. Viral replication was measured by collecting supernatant for 9 days at 3 day intervals to quantify HIV-1 p24 antigen by ELISA (FIG. 12). HIV titer was not reduced with the highest concentration (200 μg/ml) of retrocyclin, demonstrating that retrocyclin does not target the virion directly. In this respect, the actions of retrocyclin are different from the direct inactivation of herpes simplex virus previously observed with human and rabbit α-defensins.

Retrocyclin binds to T1 cells. Since retrocyclin does not directly inactivate HIV-1 virions, the ability of retrocyclin to interact with a cellular target was determined, using RC-101, a Arg₉→Lys₉ congener of retrocyclin that retained the antiretroviral activity of the parent molecule. RC-101 was conjugated to the amine-reactive fluorescent dye, BODIPY-FL (Molecular Probes), according to the manufacturer's protocol. The conjugate (RC-101_(BODIPY-FL)) was purified by reverse-phase HPLC and resuspended in 0.01% acetic acid at up to 240 μg/ml. RC-101_(BODIPY-FL) (20 μg/ml) was incubated with 2.5×10⁵ CD4⁺-selected PBMC cells for 15 min at room temperature, washed once in fresh R10-50 media. Specimens were imaged on a Leica TCS-SP Confocal Microscope (Heidelberg, Germany) equipped with an argon laser for excitation of BODIPY-FL and phycoerythrin (PE). Images were collected with Leica Confocal Software. RC-101_(BODIPY-FL) bound to the cell membrane, mostly in patches. Patching (“microaggregation”) has been reported to occur with hormone-occupied epidermal growth factor receptors (95), and “rafts” are involved in signaling through the confinement of chemokine receptors to discrete regions of the cell membrane. RC-101_(BODIPY-FL) colocalizes with phycoerythrin (PE)-labeled monoclonal antibodies directed against CXCR4, CCR5 and CD4, but does not with PE-labeled isotype control antibodies. Thus, retrocyclin aggregates in the same “rafts” as the receptor and coreceptors for HIV-1. In addition, RC-101_(BODIPY-FL) aggregated in patches where CD4, CXCR4 and CCR5 levels were weak or absent

A flow cytometry experiment was performed to examine binding of BODIPY-labeled RC-101. T1 cells were incubated for 1 hr at 37° C.±20 μg/ml RC-101_(BODIPY-FL), washed with R10 media, and fixed in 2% paraformaldehyde/PBS. Cells were analyzed by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) on a Becton-Dickinson FACScan. Live cells (10⁴ events) were gated and analyzed by CellQuest. Two peaks were present, which may represent non-specific and specific cellular binding

Retrocyclin inhibits HIV replication at an early step (reverse transcription or before). To determine whether retrocyclin blocked the formation of proviral DNA in HIV-JR-CSF-inoculated CD4⁺-selected PBMC, quantitative real time PCR was performed. This method is more sensitive than measuring p24 release and can detect infection even when p24 values may be affected by virus carried over from the original inoculum. CD4⁺-selected PBMC (10⁶ cells) were incubated in 250 μl at 37° C./5% CO₂ for 3 hr with either HIV-1 strain JR-CSF (MOI=0.1), heat-inactivated virus (background control), JR-CSF+20 μg/ml retrocyclin or JR-CSF+20 μg RC-101. Cells were washed and resuspended in 1 ml R10-50 media, and incubated for an additional 9 hours. Following incubation, cells were pelleted at 300×g, removed of overlying supernatant, and stored at −80° C. until analyzed by real time PCR. Retrocyclin and RC-101 inhibited the formation of HIV-1 proviral DNA (FIG. 13), indicating that retrocyclin acts early, either to inhibit reverse transcription or preceding events.

Some retrocyclins are slightly active against herpes simplex virus (HSV). To determine if the activity of retrocyclin against HIV-1 was specific or representative of a more global antiviral effect, it was tested its ability to prevent HSV infection in vitro. A quantitative microplate assay was used to screen retrocyclin and retrocyclin-congeners for their ability to inactivate HSV type 1 (HSV-1) and HSV-2. The assay utilized small amounts of peptide and simultaneously evaluated for peptide-induced cytotoxicity. In brief, final peptide concentrations of 2-50 μg/ml were incubated with virus stocks for 2 hrs and added directly to ME-180 human cervical carcinoma cells. Cultures were incubated at 37° C. for 72 hrs and cytotoxicity was measured using a 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazon-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) cell proliferation kit (Boehringer-Mannheim, Germany). Calculations to assess antiviral activity and compute “percent protection” are delineated in (90). Retrocyclin afforded modest protection against HSV-2, but not HSV-1 (FIG. 14). In contrast, RC-102 and RC-103 were less antiviral than retrocyclin. However, RC-101 was modestly protective against HSV-1 and nearly completely protective against HSV-2. The substitution of Arg₉→Lys₉ produced a retrocyclin congener that retained activity against HIV-1, bacteria and fungi, and was more active against HSV.

Example 3 Sequences of Retrocyclins

We have obtained samples of DNA from the 22 primate species listed below in the Table. The first column shows the phylogenetic group, and has the following key: E. Great apes/humans; C: Old World Monkeys; B: New World Monkeys, D. Lesser Apes; A. Column 3, showing “Genetic distance” from Homo sapiens, is expressed in %. These values come from study of gamma globin DNA (Page, S L., Chiu C, and Goodman, M. Molecular phylogeny of Old World Monkeys (Cercopithecidae) as inferred from gamma-globin DNA sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 1999. 13:348-359.) Column four shows the sources of DNA samples: 1, the Coriell Institute; and 2, the “Frozen Zoo” collection of the San Diego Zoo. We have performed RT-PCR on all of these samples with primers based on the sequence of the human retrocyclin gene. “Pending” means that the studies are still undergoing confirmation.

All of the great apes (Group E) have a retrocyclin gene or pseudogene. In the gorilla and chimpanzee the gene was inactivated by the identical signal sequence stop codon mutation found in the human retrocyclin pseudogene. A Sumatran orangutan DNA sample obtained from the Coriell Institute contained two retrocyclin genes. One gene contained the signal sequence mutation and the other appeared intact. Additional orangutan DNA samples have been obtained from the “Frozen Zoo” (described below) and are being characterized. None of the 6 New World monkeys (Group B) or 5 the prosimian species (Group A) had a retrocyclin gene.

TABLE 3 Genetic DNA Retrocyclin Retrocyclin Gene Group Species Distance Source Gene Status E Homo sapiens 0.0 1 Present inactivated E Pan troglodytes 1.6 1 Present inactivated (chimpanzee) E Pan paniscus (Bonobo) 1.7 1 Present inactivated E Gorilla gorilla (Lowland 1.9 1 Present inactivated gorilla) E Pongo pygmaeus pyg. 3.1 2 pending pending (Borneo orangutan) E Pongo pygmaeus abeli 3.1 1, 2 Present intact/inactivated (Sumatra orangutan) D Hylobates syndactylus 4.2 2 Present pending (siamang) C Macaca mulatta 6.1 1 Present intact (Rhesus macaque) C Macaca nemestrina 6.4 1 Present intact (pigtail macaque) C Theropithecus gelada 6.3 2 pending pending (Gerlada baboon) C Colobus guereza kiku. 6.8 2 Present pending (Kikuyu colobus) B Alouatta seniculus 12.7 2 Absent n.a. (Red Howler monkey) B Callicebus moloch (Titi — 2 Absent n.a. monkey) B Pithecia pithecia — 2 Absent n.a. (white-faced Saki) B Sanguinus fuscicollis — 2 Absent n.a. (Saddleback tamarin) B Callithrix pygmaea — 2 Absent n.a. (Pygmy marmoset) B Ateles geoffroyi (Black 11.7 1 Absent n.a. handed spider mky) A Sanguinus labiatus — 1 Absent n.a. (Red-bellied tamarin) A Lemur catta (Ring- ~21.3 1 Absent n.a. tailed lemur) A Varecia variegata ruber — 2 Absent n.a. (lemur) A Otolemur 28.1 2 Absent n.a. crassicaudatus (galago) A Nycticebus coucang — 2 Absent n.a. (Bengal slow loris)

Our inferences from these results are: a) The α-defensin precursor of the retrocyclin gene appeared after the Old World (B) and New World (C) monkey lineages separated. The retrocyclin gene appeared in Old World Monkeys (B) and persisted until the orangutan lineage split from the lineage of Gorillas/Chimpanzees/Humans, some 15 million years ago.

In a recent search of the NCBI human genome data base, two additional human retrocyclin genes were identified. Each gene contains a silencing mutation in its signal sequence. Two of the three retrocyclin genes encodes the same nonapeptide precursor. The third retrocyclin gene encodes a variant nonapeptide with a glycine to arginine mutation.

In the Table 4, “Hs8_(—)19639” is the NCBI identifier for the Homo sapiens chromosome 8 working draft sequence segment (Length=3,410,705 bp). The retrocyclin nonapeptide is underlined.

TABLE 4 Chromosomal Hs8_19639 location Translated sequence Chromosome 8 2,814,641 (SEQ ID NO:124) (SEQ ID NO:125) V T P A Met R T F A L L T A Met L L L V A L Stop A Q A E P L Q A R A D E A A A Q E Q P G A D D Q E Met A H A F T W H E S A A L P L S 2,813,782 S D S A R G L R C I C G R G I C R L L Stop R R F G S C A F R G T L H R I C C Chromosome 8 1,742,910 (SEQ ID NO:120) (SEQ ID NO:121) V T P A Met R T F A L L T A Met L L L V A L Stop A Q A E P L Q A R A D E A A A Q E Q P G A D D Q E Met A H A F T W H E S A A L P L S 1,742,051 S D S A R G L R C I C G R R I C R L L Stop R R F G S C A F R G T L H R I C C Chromosome 8 1,478,367 (SEQ ID NO:122) (SEQ ID NO:123) V T P A Met R T F A L L T A Met L L L V A L Stop A Q A E H F R Q E L Met K L Q P R S S L E Q Met I R K W L Met L Y Met A Stop K C R S S A F 1,479,224 S D S A R G L R C I C G R G I C R L L Stop R R F G S C A F R G T L H R I C C

Based on the above information, the primate ancestor of Homo sapiens could have expressed three retrocyclins. The structures of these peptides, called Retrocyclin 1, 2 and 3 are shown in FIG. 10A.

Three orangutan clones represent at least two different retrocyclin genes. The sequences are shown in FIG. 15. The stop codons in orangutan clone 19 are identical to those in human retrocyclin. Accordingly, clone 19 also represents an expressed pseudogene. Overall, 132/143 (92.3%) of translated products (including stop codons) from orangutan clone 19 and the human retrocyclin gene are identical. The translation products of orangutan clones 20 and 21 are identical in 141/143 (98.6%) sites. Both clones lack a silencing stop codon in their signal sequence, and should be capable of producing a functional demidefensin whose tandem nonapeptide elements (underlined) would produce a peptide identical to human retrocyclin. The predicted translation products of orangutan clone 20 and human retrocyclin are identical in 129/143 (90.2%) of positions. All three orangutan clones, #19, 20 and 21 came from the DNA of a single orangutan, It remains to be determined if the genes they represent are alleles, or if the retrocyclin locus has undergone duplication and additional retrocyclin genes remain to be found.

As shown in FIG. 15, this portion of the human retrocyclin gene encodes four stop codons (●). The first of these occurs near the end of the putative signal sequence and should abort translation. The second stop codon occurs after cysteine 3, and marks the end of the putative demidefensin sequence. The third stop codon comes after the CCR residues and marks the customary termination of an α-defensin. The final stop codon occurs after the FES tripeptide in a non-expressed region of the gene.

One Gorilla retrocyclin clone has been sequenced. Its translation product is identical to human retrocyclin in 139/143 (97.2%). The sequence is shown in an alignment with the human sequence in FIG. 15. The silencing stop codon (●) is present in the signal sequence. Consequently, this clone represents an expressed pseudogene.

Note that the chimp (Pan troglodytes) and the Bonobo (Pan paniscus) genes contain the first stop codon (●) in the signal sequence, but both lack the retrocyclin-geherating stop codon after cysteine 3 in the defensin-region. From these features, the chimp would appear to have silenced an α-defensin gene. There is an additional mutation (cysteine to glycine) in the chimp's nonapeptide region (double underlined), which was presumably acquired after the gene had been silenced by the signal sequence mutation)

Unlike human retrocyclin, the pigtail and rhesus macaque genes lack a premature stop codon (●) in their signal sequences. Both macaque genes have acquired a stop codon in a nontranslated portion of their gene, between cysteines 4 and 5 of the original defensin domain.

Example 4

We have synthesized over 20 retrocyclin congeners (RC's), and describe three of these peptides herein: RC-101, RC-115 and RC-116. Although RC-115 and RC-116 were not superior in activity to retrocyclin-1, their radio-iodinated derivatives are useful for pharmacokinetic studies. The enhanced antiviral activity of RC-101 suggests that the θ-defensins that exist (or existed) in nature are not optimized for activity against HIV-1.

Alpha, beta and theta defensins of primates are reviewed by Lehrer. (See Lehrer (2004) Nature Reviews Microbiology 2(9):727-38). The activity of several human α-defensins against HIV-1 has been reported (See Wang, et al (2004) J. Immunol 173(1):515-520); and the activityof human beta defensins 2 and 3 against HIV-1 was also shown. (See Quinones-Mateu et al (2003) AIDS. 17(16):F3948).

Materials and Methods

Viral isolates. Primary HIV-1 isolates were obtained from Institutional Review Board-approved Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Studies or from the National Institutes of Health Research and Reference Reagent Program and World Health Organization collaborative network. Detailed characteristics of the CDC isolates, including subtype determination based on the envelope region, and co-receptor usage using GHOST cell lines have been described elsewhere. For viruses obtained from the NIH Research and Reference Reagent Program, the reported subtype and co-receptor data were used as supplied. Viral stocks were generated by infecting CD8-depleted normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. After filtration through 0.22-μm filters, aliquots of the stocks were stored at −70° C. until used.

Peptide synthesis and purification. Retrocyclin-1 and the analogues shown in Table 1 were synthesized in our laboratory as previously described, using Fmoc chemistry and resins and amino acid precursors purchased from AnaSpec, Inc. (San Jose, Calif.). The peptides were at least 95% pure.

Reporter gene-based viral replication assay. JC53-BL cells, an HIV-1 reporter cell line derived from HeLa cells that expresses high levels of CD4 and the HIV co-receptors CXCR4 and CCR5, were a gift of Tranzyme Inc. (Birmingham, Ala.). The JC53-BL cells contain cassettes for luciferase and β-galactosidase, each driven by the HIV-1 LTR. HIV infection (tat production) can be detected either by measuring luciferase activity or by counting blue foci after staining the cells with “X-Gal” (5-Bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl β-D-galactopyranoside), as described elsewhere in detail. The JC53-BL cells were maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum. (HyClone, Logan, Utah), 2 mM glutamine (Gibco), 100 units per ml penicillin G and 100 μg/ml streptomycin (GIBCO™, Invitrogen Corp., San Diego, Calif.). Viral titers were determined by adding serial dilutions of the virus stocks, in triplicate, to wells containing 20,000 JC53-BL cells, after supplementing the above medium with 40 μg/ml DEAE (diethylaminoethyl)-dextran. After a 48 hour incubation at 37° C. in 5% CO₂, the cells were fixed and stained for β galactosidase, and the blue foci were counted with a light microscope. Multiplicity of infection (MOI) values were taken from the infectious unit data.

In vitro infections were carried out in the presence or absence of θ-defensin peptides. Briefly, JC53-BL cells were harvested from T-150 flasks approximately 18 hours prior to starting the assay with 0.1 mM EDTA in 0.017 M PBS, pH 7.4. The cells were washed and transferred to sterile white 96-well plates (Thermo Labsystems, Franklin, Mass.) at a density of 20,000 cells in 50 μl of medium. Three hours before adding the virus, the peptides of interest were added to the wells to give final concentrations of 1.25, 2.5, 5 and 10 μg/ml. After this 3-hour preincubation with peptides, viruses were added in media containing 40 μg/ml DEAE-dextran. The final volume was 200 μl per well, and the multiplicity of infection (viruses/cell) ranged from 0.009 to 0.65. After the plates had incubated at 37° C. in 5% CO₂ for 48 hours, luciferase activity was measured with the Steady-Glo Luciferase Assay System (Promega, Madison, Wis.), using the manufacturer's lysis protocol. Relative light intensity was measured with a Tecan luminometer running Magellan software (Tecan, Research Triangle Park, N.C.) and reported as relative light units (RLU). Each plate contained three sets of quadruplicate controls: media-only (background), virus-only (peptide-free), and recombinant luciferase. Samples were run in duplicate and the % inhibition was calculated from the mean values using the formula: % Inhibition=1−(average RLU peptide+virus wells/average RLU virus only wells)×100.

Fifty-percent inhibitory concentration values (IC₅₀) were calculated using the predicted exponential growth function in Microsoft Excel, which uses known x-y values to estimate a given x value (in this case concentration of peptide) that would correspond to a given y value (in this case IC₅₀). Statistical comparisons were by paired t-tests, unless otherwise noted.

Cytotoxicity. Cytotoxicity was analyzed by trypan blue-dye exclusion and with a MTT-based cell proliferation kit (Boehringer Mannheim, Indianapolis, Ind.). MTT is 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide. Measurements were performed using the manufacturer's protocol.

Surface plasmon resonance. Recombinant human soluble CD4 (full-length 45 kDa glycosylated ectodomain) was produced by ExpresSF+S. frugiperda cells in serum-free medium (Protein Sciences Corporation, Meriden, Conn.). Glycosylated HIV-1 gp120 (LAV) envelope glycoprotein (Catalog No. 2003-LAV) was purchased from the same source. Recombinant HIV-1BaL was obtained through the AIDS Research and Reference Reagent Program, Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, NIH.

Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) experiments were done with a Biacore 2000 system (Biacore, Inc., Piscataway, N.J.). The running buffer (pH 7.4) contained 10 mM HEPES, 150 mM NaCl, 3 mM EDTA and 0.005% polysorbate 20. The immobilized proteins (gp120-LAV and CD4) were dissolved at 20 μg/ml in 10 mM sodium acetate, pH 5.0 and immobilized on a Biacore CM5 sensor chip using the amine coupling method. The chip was activated by mixing 400 mM EDC (N-ethyl-N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-carbodiimide hydrochloride) and 100 mM N-hydroxysuccinimide. An immobilization level of −6000 response units (RU) was attained for each bound protein. Residual reactive groups on the chip surface were blocked using 1.0 Methanolamine/HCl, pH 8.5.

The flow cell chip used as a control lacked immobilized protein but was otherwise treated as above. Signals were corrected for nonspecific binding by subtracting the control signal. To regenerate the chip surface, bound ligands were removed with 10 mM HCl. Data were analyzed with BIAevaluation 3.1 software. Curve fitting was done with an assumption of 1:1 binding.

Results

FIG. 16 compares the activity of retrocyclin-1 and four retrocyclin congeners (RC-101, RC-106, RC-115 and RC-116) against seven different primary isolates of subtype B HIV-1. Each retrocyclin analog differed from retrocyclin-1 by a single amino acid replacement (Table 5).

TABLE 5 Peptide Mass Sequence of Linear Precursor* RC-100 1918.4 GICRC ICGRG ICRCI CGR (SEQ ID NO: 1) RC-101 1890.4 GICRC ICGKG ICRCI CGR (SEQ ID NO: 2) RC-106 1925.4 GICYC ICGRG ICRCI CGR (SEQ ID NO: 137) RC-115 1925.4 GICRC ICGRY ICRCI CGR (SEQ ID NO: 138) RC-116 1925.4 RYICR CICGR GICRC ICG (SEQ ID NO: 139)

The differences between retrocyclin-1 and RC-101 are highly significant at each concentration (p<0.001). RC-106, which has consistently shown little or no anti-HIV activity in our previous assays, was included as a negative control. Whereas the mean IC₅₀ value of RC-101 for the seven subtype B strains was <1.25 μg/ml (<660 nM) that of retrocyclin-1 was approximately 5.0 μg/ml (2.6 μM). Table 6 shows IC₅₀ results for the individual HIV-1 isolates.

TABLE 6 Characteristics of the Primary Isolates IC₅₀ Concentrations (μg/ml) Isolate Origin Subtype Coreceptor RC-100 RC-101 RC-115 RC-116 92US714 USA B R5 >10 93US151 USA B X4 1.69 0.49 2.12 1.26 92HT593 Haiti B X4 5.73 0.76 4.24 3.68 92US727 USA B R5 6.46 5.44 4.61 5148-1382 USA B R5 5.71 5157-1326 USA B R5 4.64 3.59 4.79 5157-35097 USA B R5X4 6.29 193317 Nigeria A X4 >10 7.10 7.13 196554 Senegal A R5 5.73 0.51 4.52 2.39 196531 Cameroon A R5 >10 2.65 2.69 7.80 92UG037 Uganda A R5 1.44 192431 Nigeria C X4 5.18 0.54 5.41 2.4 193358 Nigeria C R5 >10 2.75 7.75 98CN009 China C R5 >10 8.53 98TZ017 Tanzania C R5 >10 4.87 7.11 93UG053 Uganda D R5 6.38 1.54 3.88 6.57 92UG005 Uganda D R5 5.18 1 4.14 5.18 94UG114 Uganda D R5 3.69 3.52 4.20 HM14 Thailand CRF01-AE X4 3.09 0.84 3.39 3.25 93TH060 Thailand CRF01-AE R5 7.39 2.15 5 6.5 HM16 Thailand CRF01-AE RU132 Russia G R5 5.27 3.00 4.91 RU570 G R5 8.63 nt 5.77 9.56 92BR023 C/B R5 4.71 3.04 2.44 2.86 92RW009 C/A R5/X4 8.72 2.72 4.71 7.75 92RW024 D/A R5 7.78 4.57 6.58 93UG059 A/D X4 6.65 4.67 5.7

The IC₅₀ values of retrocyclin-1 and RC-101 also differed significantly (p=0.012). FIG. 17 compares the activity of the retrocyclin peptides against four subtype A and four subtype C primary isolates. RC-101 was more active than retrocyclin-1 against both subtypes at each concentration tested. Table 2 shows the IC₅₀ concentrations of the individual subtype A and subtype C isolates. For statistical analysis, the results obtained with subtypes A and C were combined, and a value of 10 was assigned to any IC₅₀ value >10 μg/ml. With these practices, the IC₅₀ of retrocyclin-1 was 7.79±1.16 μg/ml (mean±SEM, n=8) and the IC₅₀ of RC-101 was 2.93±0.95 μg/ml (p<0.001).

FIG. 18 compares the activity of these peptides against six additional primary HIV-1 isolates, three from subtype D and three circulating recombinant forms (CRF01_AE, formerly classified as subtype E). RC-101 was more active than retrocyclin-1 against the subtype D strains at 1.25 μg/ml (p=0.02), 2.5 μg/ml (p=0.004), 5 μg/ml (p=0.003) and 10 μg/ml (p=0.032). Analysis of subtype G and various recombinant viruses gave similar results, wherein RC-101 afforded greater protection than retrocyclin-1 (FIG. 19, Table 6).

We previously reported that the protection against HIV-1 afforded by retrocyclin-1 and its analogs was correlated to their binding to gp120 and CD4. In those experiments, biosensor chips containing immobilized gp120 or CD4 were perfused with a 1 μg/ml solution of the peptides, and binding was measured by surface plasmon resonance. When we compared binding by retrocyclin-1 and RC-101 in exactly the same manner, we saw very little difference between them. FIG. 20 compares the binding of lower concentrations of these peptides, ranging from 0.05 to 0.5 μg/ml, to immobilized gp120 LAV. From these binding isotherms, and from similar studies performed with biosensor chips containing immobilized gp120 BaL or CD4, the binding constants shown in Table 7 were obtained. RC-101 had a slightly higher affinity than retrocyclin-1 for both gp120 preparations, however, their respective KDvalues differed only by about 10% for gp120 LAV and by about 30% for gp120 BaL. No binding studies were performed with gp120 preparations derived from non-B HIV-1 subtypes. These would be of considerable interest, especially for subtype C, which required the highest peptide concentrations to achieve protection. We found no significant difference between retrocyclin-1 and RC-101 with respect to binding immobilized CD4 (Table 7).

TABLE 7 Peptide Receptor k_(on) k_(off) K_(D) RC-100 gp120(LAV) 8.03 × 10⁴ 2.96 × 10⁻³ 35.4 nM RC-101 gp120(LAV) 9.72 × 10⁴ 3.04 × 10⁻³ 31.2 nM RC-100 gp120(BaL) 14.1 × 10⁴ 4.12 × 10⁻³ 29.2 nM RC-101 gp120(BaL) 27.0 × 10⁴ 5.55 × 10⁻³ 20.5 nM RC-100 CD4 6.77 × 10⁴ 2.20 × 10⁻³ 31.0 nM RC-101 CD4 7.90 × 10⁴ 2.26 × 10⁻³ 28.6 nM

Human leukocytes do not express θ-defensins. Instead, they contain four α-defensins (HNP 1, 2, 3 and 4) that collectively contain 17 arginine residues and no lysines. This lopsided ratio is noteworthy, because lysine is generally at least as abundant as arginine in most other peptides and proteins. The other α-defensins in mammalian neutrophils (PMNs) also show a marked preference for arginine over lysine. Collectively, the four rat α-defensins (Rat NPs 1-4) contain 28 arginines and no lysines, and the six rabbit α-defensins have 47 arginines and only 2 lysines. Even the bovine neutrophil's α-defensins (BNBDs) displaya marked excess of arginines over lysines, since BNBDs 1-10 collectively contain 71 arginines and only 6 lysines. Thus, whereas the replacement of an arginine residue with a lysine would be considered conservative by chemists, evolution strongly favored arginines in selecting the mammalian leukocyte defensins. No such selection bias is evident in most mammalian epithelial cell β-defensins. Collectively, human beta defensins 1-3 and murine beta-defensins 1-3 contain 30 lysines and 20 arginines.

Because the θ-defensin genes arose via mutation of pre-existing myeloid α-defensin genes, θ-defensin peptides are also arginine-rich and lysine poor. In a recent study that examined 16 primate θ-defensin genes from nine primate species, we found that the nonapeptide domains included in θ-defensins contained 37 arginines and no lysines. Thus, while the difference between RC-100 and RC-101 might seem chemically conservative, peptides like RC-101 are not likely to be generated in vivo by evolutionary processes based on random mutation and natural selection.

Both lysine and arginine residues carry a positive charge at the end of a flexible, long, locally hydrophobic side chain. Consequently, both can form salt bridges with negatively charged amino acids, sugars (e.g., sialic acids) and other (poly)anionic molecules (e.g., nucleic acids). Whereas the rigid guanidinium group of arginine contains five potential hydrogen bond donors, the nonplanar ε-amino group of lysine has but two of them. In many studies, replacing an arginine with lysine (or vice versa) has affected function—sometimes radically.

This is well illustrated by two porcine antimicrobial peptides: protegrin PG-1 and tritrpticin, a 13-residue peptide rich in tryptophan, proline and arginine. Replacing the arginines of tritrpticin with lysines enhanced its antimicrobial activity and reduced its hemolytic effects. Protegrin (PG)-1 is a noncyclic, arginine-rich β-hairpin antimicrobial peptide whose structure is generally similar to that of θ-defensins. Substituting lysine for arginine in PG-1 caused up to a four-fold increase in its activity against Gram-negative bacteria. It is noteworthy that the subtype A and C isolates in our panel were considerably more resistant to retrocyclin-1 than were the other subtypes. Overall, 6 of the 8 subtype C isolates and 3 of the 6 subtype A strains had IC₅₀ values above 10 μg retrocyclin-1/ml. In contrast, only 1 of the 30 other primary isolates listed in Table 6 had an IC₅₀ of this magnitude. To compare the IC₅₀ values of subtypes B and C by nonparametric statistics, we assigned a value of 10 μg/ml for 12 each IC₅₀ value above 10 μg/ml. A Mann-Whitney Sign Rank test found a statistically significant difference (P exact=0.04) between the respective IC₅₀ values.

The activity of retrocyclin-1 analogs against HIV-1 strains JR-CSF and IIIB (both of subtype B) correlated with binding of these peptides to gp120 from HIV-1 LAV (the prototype subtype B isolate). In this study, we found no significant differences in how retrocyclin-1 and RC-101 bound immobilized gp120 (FIG. 20 and Table 7). However, all of our binding studies to date have been conducted with recombinant gp120 that was ultimately derived from subtype B strains. The C2-V3 region of gp120 from subtype C isolates typically lacks a potential N-glycosylation site that is present in other HIV-1 subtypes, and most subtype A variants also lack one or more N-linked glycans in this region. These affected sites are in close proximity to the bottom of the V3 loop, a region that plays a major role in viral tropism and co-receptor usage.

Example 5

The sequence and activity of additional retrocyclin-related peptides are shown in Table 8.

TABLE 8 Hemagglutination seen Identifier Alternative Name Mass at a concentration of: Sequence (linear) RC100 Retrocyclin-1 1918.4 6–12.5 μg/ml GICRC ICGRG ICRCI CGR and above (SEQ ID NO: 1) RC100b Retrocyclin-2 2017.6 12.5 or 25 μg/ml GICRC ICGRR ICRCI CGR and above (SEQ ID NO: 140) RC101 RC101 1890.4 None @ GICRC ICGKG ICRCI CGR 200 μg/ml (SEQ ID NO: 2) RC112 Enantio-retro-1 1918.4 50 μg/ml [All D] GICRC ICGRG ICRCI CGR (SEQ ID NO: 1) RC113 Enantio-RC101 1890.4 50 μg/ml [All D] GICRC ICGKG ICRCI CGR (SEQ ID NO: 2) RC114 RC101/103 hybrid 1940.5 200 μg/ml GICRC ICGKG ICRCY CGR (None seen @ (SEQ ID NO: 126) 150 μg/ml) RC119 R→K Retrocyclin-1 1846.4 50 μg/ml GICKC ICGKG ICKCI CGR (SEQ ID NO: 127) RC123A Retrocyclin 2A 1989.6 50 μg/ml GICRC ICGKR ICRCI CGR (SEQ ID NO: 128) RC123B Retrocyclin 2B 1961.5 6.25 μg/ml GICRC ICGKK ICRCI CGR and above (SEQ ID NO: 129) RC123C Retrocyclin 2C 1989.6 50 μg/ml GICRC ICGRK ICRCI CGR (SEQ ID NO: 130) RC123D Retrocyclin 2D 1989.6 50 μg/ml GICRC ICGRR ICKCI CGR (SEQ ID NO: 131) RC123E Retrocyclin 2E 1989.6 25 μg/ml GICKC ICGRR ICRCI CGR and above (SEQ ID NO: 132) RC123F Retrocyclin 2F 1989.6 25 and 50 μg/ml GICRC ICGRR ICRCI CGK (SEQ ID NO: 133) Orang-2 — 1989.5 NT GVCRC ICGRG VCRCI CRR (SEQ ID NO: 134) Orang-3 — NT GVCRC ICGRG VCRCI CGR (SEQ ID NO: 135)

The table shows lysine containing variants of retrocyclin. Thirteen of these peptides were tested for their ability to cause hemagglutination (clumping of red cells). Hemagglutination is a common property of lectins, so its occurrence is not surprising since we have reported that retrocyclins are lectins. Several of the lysine containing peptides showed much less hemagglutination than retrocyclin—including RC101 and RC114. This is a desirable property for systemic administration. Several of the other lysin-containing retrocyclin derivatives also showed less hemagglutination than retrocyclins 1 or 2, as shown in the table.

Hemagglutination was tested by adding the stated concentration of peptide to a well comprising red blood cells (shown in FIG. 22). When the RBC are agglutinated, they clump together and settle rapidly and form a diffuse circle covering much of the bottom of the well. In the absence of agglutination, they settle more slowly and form a compact red button in the center of the well.

Sequences of retrocyclin-related peptides that were synthesized and either tested for activity against HIV-1 (see FIGS. 21A and 21B) and/or for their ability to cause human red blood cells to hemagglutinate or both. NT signifies not tested. Linear sequences appear in the table, but all peptides were cyclic and contained three intramolecular disulfide bonds. Hemagglutination of washed human red blood cells was tested in PBS, at peptide concentrations of 50, 25, 12.5 6.25 and 3.12 μg/ml. The lowest concentrations that caused hemagglutination are shown. Peptide concentrations were determined by amino acid analysis or by AUC (area under the curve) RP-HPLC analysis with reference to amino-acid analyzed standards. RC101, RC112 (enantio-retrocyclin-1), RC113, RC123A and RC123C all caused less hemagglutination than retrocyclin-1 or retrocyclin-2.

The data shown in FIGS. 21A and 21B illustrate the activity of these retrocyclin-related peptides against two different strains of HIV-1, BAL and IIIB. Interestingly, orang-2 appeared more potent than retrocyclins 1 and 2 and RC101 against both strains. BAL and IIIB are widely studied, laboratory adapted strains of HIV.

All publications and patent applications cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference as if each individual publication or patent application were specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. The citation of any publication is for its disclosure prior to the filing date and should not be construed as an admission that the present invention is not entitled to antedate such publication by virtue of prior invention.

Although the foregoing invention has been described in some detail by way of illustration and example for purposes of clarity of understanding, it will be readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art in light of the teachings of this invention that certain changes and modifications may be made thereto without departing from the spirit or scope of the appended claims. 

1. An isolated polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1; SEQ ID NO:3; SEQ ID NO:4; SEQ ID NO:5; or SEQ ID NO:6.
 2. The isolated retrocyclin peptide according to claim 1, wherein said peptide is linear.
 3. The isolated retrocyclin peptide according to claim 1, wherein said peptide is circular.
 4. A polypeptide according to claim 1, and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient.
 5. An isolated retrocyclin peptide, wherein said peptide is two linked nonapeptides, wherein one said nonapeptide is SEQ ID NO:19 comprising a lysine or lysine analog substitution at residue 6, and one said nonapeptide is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:19 to SEQ ID NO:64; and SEQ ID NO:74 to SEQ ID NO:119.
 6. The isolated retrocyclin according to claim 5, and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient.
 7. A polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2.
 8. A polypeptide according to claim 7, and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. 